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MODERN LETTERING 

ARTISTIC AND PRACTICAL 



A THOROUGH AND PRACTICAL TEXT-BOOK FOR USE IN 

Schools and Colleges and for the Self-Instruction of Architects, Artists, 

Decorators and Sign Writers 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF PEN AND INK DESIGNS FOR COMMERCIAL USES: 

Advertisements, Letter Heads, Business Cards, Inscriptions, Memorials, Resolutions, etc. 

By WILLIAM HEYNY 

Formerly Instructor of Lettering at Teachers' College, Columbia University, Mechanics' Institute, etc. 
With Forty-two Plates Drawings by the Author 



SECOND EDITION— REVISED AND ENLARGED 



New York '^"•'' 
THE WILLIAM T. COMSTOCK COMPANY, 23 Warren Street 



Copyright, 1909, 1913 
By WILLIAM HEYNY 



JAN 20 19/4 



)C1,A3G2235 






PREFACE 



A number of books have been written on LET- 
TERING. Several new works of this kind, contain- 
ing some very good features, were published re- 
cently. That most of these books, from a practical 
standpoint, are worse than useless, is a well-known 
and deplorable fact. In constructing the letters of 
the alphabets, the designer has too often departed far 
from the original outlines, thus misleading young 
students of lettering. Letters and numerals designed 
for the use of architects, on plans and specifications, 
are likewise inadequate for the purpose, being either 
stiff and ill-spaced, lacking in beauty, or too highly 
embellished. Too many scrolls and flourishes make 
it difficult to decipher a letter easily, which is a grave 
fault, as legibility ought to be the artist's first con- 
sideration. Only plain letters, that can be quickly 
made and easily read, should be used by architects. 
Engineers and builders with them have no trouble 
in making out their meaning, and are not nearly so 
liable to make mistakes. 

One branch of the art of lettering, in particular, 
has received but scant attention: the designing of 
attractive advertisements is virtually a class in itself. 
It constitutes a special field, and a most interesting 
and remunerative one. 

In the following pages the author has endeavored 



to supply such information on the subject as has 
been gained by many years of experience in this 
line. Practical suggestions are given, simple meth- 
ods employed. The difference between correct and 
faulty styles of letters, good and poor spacing, har- 
monious and bad grouping of words and phrases is 
shown by artistic examples. The result aimed at is 
the construction of plain and neat designs, of novel, 
individual ideas in advertisements, lettering of 
quality, instead of the stiff, monotonous types and 
faulty spacing as generally employed, or exagger- 
ated styles, that cannot be read. 

The printer is limited to the use of existing types; 
the designer of letters is bound only by the limits of 
his own imagination. If his creative or inventive 
powers be boundless, he should be wise enough not 
to let his fancy lead him to extremes. Aim for 
beauty rather than striking or crying effects. 

In no department of the graphic arts is good taste 
being sinned against so frequently and persistently 
as in the art of lettering. At almost every step we 
are offended by coarse violations of the art; and this 
is true not only of commercial lettering, but also of 
architectural inscriptions and those of memorial 
tablets, claimed to represent masterpieces, and in- 
tended to impress future generations. 



Doubtless one of the causes of this lamentable lack 
of judgment is the fact that certain authors of books 
on mechanical drawing do not realize the impor- 
tance of good lettering, and treat the subject as a side 
issue only. The results are mathematically correct 
but, consequently, stiff, awkward letters, drawn with 
painstaking care, but devoid of harmony and beauty. 
The other extreme is as bad, if not worse. We are 
drifting into a craze for " fancy," " snappy " letter- 
ing called by representatives of this school " mod- 
ern." While sometimes executed with no little skill, 
this style of lettering is of no practical value, be- 
cause the average person cannot read it without dif- 
ficulty. More artistic ability is required to con- 
struct a plain letter correctly than to create a most 
phantastic " modern " hieroglyphic, but it demands 
study and practice to cultivate the taste necessary to 
produce the former. 

This book does not merely present a collection of 
alphabets and designs, but may be considered a guide 
into the realms of letterdom. The construction of 
letters is taught by a system of easy lessons, and rules 
are laid down for the proportions and spacing of 
the different characters, in their relations to each 
other. At every stage of the development practical 
examples are given. From step to step the text is ac- 
companied by illustrations, explaining important 
good points and also mistakes to be avoided. 



Good letterers are exceedingly scarce, and there is 
a growing demand for competent exponents of the 
art. Keen competition of tradespeople has brought 
about in recent years a marvelous display of posters, 
signs and labels, and an extraordinary mass of ad- 
vertising matter in the newspapers and magazines. 
It is necessary now to make your "ad" stand out 
prominently among a hundred others. Thus the art 
of designing novel and conspicuous advertisements 
is becoming more important every day. It appeals 
to the creative talent of the artist. Correct, well 
spaced lettering is wanted. In addition to this the 
principal words of the subject matter must be dis- 
tinctly brought out, so that the reader can see at a 
glance what the advertisement may offer. The pro- 
ducer is eager to sell his goods, and the advertise- 
ment must tell the story. Advertising is as essential 
as the merchant's display of goods. But the an- 
nouncement should not flare out brutally, aggres- 
sively. The advertiser, when he lifts his voice, must 
not shout offensively, but should temper his language 
by artistic effects. 

The young student of art or architecture also, 
who takes up the study of lettering seriously, will 
find in this method everything necessary to acquire 
proficiency, if he be but willing to do his part, by 
working out the problems and following the sugges- 
tions here offered. 



CONTENTS 



Introduction 



PAGE 

7 



Water Color, White 
Sheet Gelatine 



PAGE 

19 
19 



PART I 

The Drawing Materials 

The Drawing Board 9 

The T-Square 9 

The Triangle 10 

The Set of Drawing Instruments . . 10 

(a) The Compasses 11 

(b) The Ruling Pen 12 

(c) The Bow Spacers .... 13 

(d) The Dividers 13 

Lead Pencils 14 

Pencil Pointer IS 

Writing Pens iS 

Thumb Tacks IS 

India Ink . , . 16 

Flat Rule 17 

Drawing Paper 16 

Cross-Section paper 17 

Transfer Paper 18 

Tracing Paper or Cloth 18 

Irregular Curves 18 

Brushes 18 

Rubber 15 

Ink Eraser 19 



PART II 
Practice Work 

Position in Drawing, as to Light . . 19 

Practice Work 19 

The Guide Lines (with illustration) . 22 

Copying the Letters 22 

Method of Procedure 23 

Ellipses 30 

Mechanical Construction of Letters and 

Numerals {with 3 construction plates) 31 
General Rules for the Construction of 

Letters 50 

Modern Roman 50 

Antique Roman 51 

French Roman 54 

Ornamental Roman 54 

Block 54 

Square Block 54 

Ornamental Block ..... 54 

Plain or Condensed, Round ... 55 

Plain, Square 55 

Plain, Spurred 55 

Roman Italics 55 

5 



Modern Gothic .... 
German Gothic .... 
Modern Uncials .... 

The Lower Case Letters : 

Modern Roman, Lower Case 
French Roman, Lower Case 
Antique Roman, Lower Case 
Ornamental Roman, Lower Case 
Plain, Round, Lower Case . 
Plain, Square, Lower Case . 
Plain, Spurred, Lower Case 
Block, Lower Case 
Ornamental Block, Lower Case 
Roman Italics, Lower Case 
Modern Gothic, Lower Case 
German Gothic, Lower Case 

Modern Script 

Freedom of Treatment 



page 
62 
66 
67 

74 
75 
75 
75 
75 
75 
75 
75 
75 
75 
81 
81 
84 
84 



PART III 

The Alphabets, Practical and Artistic 

Their History, Description and 

Proper Use 

The Roman Alphabets 85 

The Classic Roman Capitals {with plate) 85 



Modern Roman (with 3 plates) ... 89 
French Roman (with 2 plates) . . .89 

Antique Roman (with plate) ... 92 

Ornamental Roman (with plate) . . 92 

Roman Italics (with plate) .... 93 
Plain or Condensed, Round and Square 

(with plates) 93 

Plain, Spurred (with plate) .... 96 

Block (with plate) 96 

Ornamental Block (with plate) . . 97 
The Lower Case Letters (with five 

plates) 97 

The Gothic Alphabets 



Modern Gothic, or Old English (with 
plate) 



97 



PAGE 

German Gothic (with plate) . . . 100 
Modern Uncials or Church Text (with 

plate) loi 

The Numerals (illustrated) .... 112 
The Architects' Single Stroke Alphabets, 
comprising 3 alphabets, upper and 
lower case (with plate) 112 



PART IV 

The Proper and Artistic Employment of 
Lettering 

Arrangement of Letters, Composition, 
Spacing, Balance, Harmony (with 
plates) 116 



PAGE 

Grouping of Words and Sentences (with 

plate) 117 

The " Ad " (with plate) 120 

The Border 121 

Adapting Ideas (with plate) . . . 124 
Letter Heads and Business Cards, Title 
Pages, Book Cover Designs, Newspa- 
per Headings 125 

Designing Memorials, Resolutions, etc. 

(with plate) 128 

Conclusion 134 

Alphabetical Index 135, 136 



LIST OF PLATES 



Example of Grouping . . . Frontispiece 

I The Guide Lines .... 

II Mechanical Construction of 

Letters and Numerals (i) . 

III Mechanical Construction of 

Letters and Numerals (2) . 

IV Mechanical Construction of 

Letters and Numerals (3) . 
V Modern Roman (i) 
VI Modern Roman (2) 
VII Modern Roman (3) 
VIII Classic Roman 
IX French Roman (i) 
X French Roman (2) 



^GE 


XI 


21 


XII 




XIII 


25 


XIV 




XV 


27 


XVI 




XVII 


29 


XVIII 


33 


XIX 


35 


XX 


37 




41 


XXI 


45 


XXII 


47 


XXIII 



PAGE 

Antique Roman 53 XXIV 

Ornamental Roman ... 57 XXV 

Century Roman .... 61 XXVI 

Roman Italics 65 XXVII 

Plain, Round 69 XXVIII 

Plain, Square 71 XXIX 

Plain, Spurred 73 XXX 

Block 77 XXXI 

Ornamental Block .... 79 

Architects' Single Stroke Al- XXXII 

phabets 83 XXXIII 

Modern Script 87 XXXIV 

German Gothic 91 XXXV 

Modern Gothic (Old English) 95 

6 



Modern Uncials 
Lower Case Letters (i) 
Lower Case Letters (2) 
Lower Case Letters (3) 
Lower Case Letters (4) 
Lower Case Letters (5) 
Example of Composition . 
Mutilation, Freak Letters 

Modernized Letters 
Examples of Spacing . 
Model Advertisement 
Reconstructed Border Design 
Example of Engrossed Me 

morial 



PAGE 

99 
103 

105 
107 
109 
III 
"5 

119 
123 
127 
131 

^33 



INTRODUCTION 



" Lettering, the art of designing the letters of the 
alphabet, for various commercial, mechanical and 
artistic purposes, largely used in architectural work, 
sign painting, advertisement designing, engraving, 
printing and book-plate and book-cover making. It 
may be said that practically all the lettering now 
used in architectural offices in this country is de- 
rived, however remotely it may seem in some cases, 
from the old Roman capitals, as developed and de- 
fined during the period of the Italian Renaissance. 
Composition in lettering is almost too intangible to 
define by any rule. All the suggestions that may be 
given are of necessity laid out on merely mathemat- 
ical formulae, and as such, are incapable of equaling 
the result that may be obtained by spacing and pro- 
ducing the effect solely from artistic experience and 
intuition. The final result should always be judged 
by its effect upon the eye, which must be trained, 
until it is susceptible to the slightest deviation from 
the perfect whole. It is more difficult to define what 
good composition is in lettering than in painting or 
any other of the more generally accepted arts, and it 
resolves itself back to the same problem. The eye 
must be trained by constant study of good and pleas- 
ing forms and proportions, until it appreciates in- 
stinctively almost intangible mistakes in spacing and 



arrangement. This point of "composition" is so 
important that a legend of most beautiful individual 
letter forms, badly placed, will not produce as 
pleasing an effect as an arrangement of more awk- 
ward letters, when their composition is good." — 
Americana. 

" Lettering, the art of designing the letters of the 
alphabet." 

The shaping and spacing of well proportioned, 
harmonious letters is an art. The pleasing effect of 
good lettering on the eye trained to beauty is not 
second to that of a fine painting, or the lines of class- 
ical architecture. The student of the art of lettering 
should aim at the highest standards only, to cultivate 
a taste for the beautiful. 

" The letters used in our time are derived from the 
old Roman capitals." 

Therefore, in beginning the study of the forms of 
letters, we should go back to this source. 

"As developed and defined during the period of 
the Italian Renaissance," the letters of the Roman 
alphabet have since been somewhat modified. But 
in many instances letterers have departed so far 
from the originals, as to lose sight of the most beauti- 
ful features. 

The unchanged original characters are seldom 



used for any but architectural work. To the student 
of lettering, however, they afford an eternal stand- 
ard of highest quality, and the earnest seeker of good 
forms should ever return to the beauties of their 
classic outlines. 

The Modern Roman, French Roman and Antique 
Roman letters have been universally accepted. They 
are by far the most legible and most handsome styles 
of letters that can be employed on all occasions, 
where space admits of their use, without crowding. 
The neat appearance of a composition of several 
lines in Roman letters of different size, graded ac- 
cording to their importance^ is evident even to the 
less cultivated eye. 

" Composition in lettering is almost too intangible 
to define by any rule. All the suggestions that may 
be given are of necessity laid out on merely mathe- 
matical formulae and as such are incapable of equal- 
ing the result that may be obtained by spacing and 
producing the effect solely from artistic experience 
and intuition." 

The eye should be trained to see. Of course, rules 
must be laid down for the beginner, in order to teach 
correct proportions. Later on these proportions will 
be arrived at instinctively, without employing any 
definite rule. The same is true of good spacing. 
This point of supreme importance is brought out by 
comparison. Balance your spaces. As each letter 



occupies different room in space, so the distances 
between the letters must of necessity be different. 
The study of the suggestions as to spacing, here given, 
the copying of examples as they occur and much 
practice work is excellent experience and leads to 
perfection. 

'' The eye must be trained by constant study of 
good and pleasing forms and proportions, until it 
appreciates instinctively almost intangible mistakes 
in spacing and arrangement." 

The problem, concisely stated, is SPACING 
AND ARRANGEMENT. As the mind is edu- 
cated and the mental understanding gradually de- 
veloped, the manual skill will doubtless follow. 
The letters should be copied and recopied, until the 
proportions and outlines are understood and the 
ability to reproduce them is acquired. But the ar- 
rangement of a group of words, the composition and 
the spacing cannot be thus mastered. The student's 
eye can only be trained by degrees. As he advances 
in his chosen line of work, he will get at the mean- 
ing of the mysterious word "spacing" almost un- 
consciously. Once the lessons in spacing have been 
comprehended, the eye will unerringly detect any 
mistakes. 

After having learned the lessons in this book, ex- 
perience alone is requisite to more fully develop the 
ability to arrange letters pleasingly. 



8 



PART I— THE DRAWING MATERIALS 



The Instruments and How to Use Them 



The instruments and materials necessary for this 
course are as follows: — 

Drawing board, T-square, Triangle, Set of draw- 
ing instruments, Lead pencils, Erasing and cleaning 
rubber, Thumb tacks, Writing pens and holder, Pen- 
cil pointer, India ink, Ink eraser. White water color, 
Set of brushes. Set of irregular curves, Flat rule. 
Sketching and drawing paper, Cross-section paper, 
Tracing paper or cloth, Transfer paper. 

The Drawing Board should be of clear pine, with 
a cross-piece at each end, to prevent warping. Do 
not use one smaller than 1 8 by 24 inches, 20 by 26 
would be better. The cost is about one dollar. Make 
sure the edges are perfect and sharp. Run your 
fingers along them and reject any board that feels 
rough or shows the least dent or projection. An ac- 
curate drawing cannot result unless the edge of the 
drawing board be perfectly true and even. The 
T-square is guided along the edges of the board, and 
should work freely and smoothly. In selecting a 
suitable drawing board, try a T-square on it to in- 
sure perfectly square corners. At least the bottom 
and left edges should be exactly square. Lay the T- 
square on the top of the working surface of the 



board, with the T-square head pressed against the 
edge and move along, up and down, until the blade 
of the T-square is even with the corresponding edge 
of the board. This may also be considered a test for 
the accuracy of the T-square. In use, the left and 
bottom edges of the drawing board are the " work- 
ing," or "sliding" edges. The board is laid flat 
upon the table, or it may be raised slightly at the top. 
As you face your drawing board, the lines running 
from left to right are called horizontal, those from 
the top to bottom edge of the board, vertical lines. 
When, after long use, the drawing board becomes 
full of holes and uneven, it may the restored to use- 
fulness by first cleaning and smoothening with sand- 
paper, and then glueing on a sheet of thin card- 
board. 

The T-square is laid across the drawing board, 
with its head resting against the edge. The blade 
must be long enough to reach over the whole of the 
board. Use a T-square with a fixed head and black 
rubber blade. It can be bought for about $1.50. 
The edge of the T-square must be absolutely straight 
and smooth, or else a correct drawing cannot be 
made. When drawing long vertical lines, rest the 



head of the T-square against the lower edge of the 
drawing board, keeping it firmly pressed in position 
with the left hand. For horizontal lines it is held 
against the left edge of the board, as above described. 
Along this edge the head of the T-square is slid up 
or down, as the case may be, and all horizontal lines 
drawn from left to right, guided by the upper edge 
of the blade. For the short vertical lines, as they 
occur in lettering, the triangle is used. Never use 
the right hand to move the T-square. Do not guide 
a knife along the edge of the T-square or triangle 
when cutting. When not in use the T-square should 
hang safely against the wall. A hole is provided for 
this purpose at the end of the blade. Never stand it 
up or lean it against the wall or furniture, lest the 
blade become permanently bent, or warp out of 
shape. By resting it on the floor it is also liable to 
be stepped upon and injured or broken. 

The Triangle or Set Square is used for lettering 
principally to draw the short vertical lines. It is laid 
on the drawing paper, above the T-square blade, 
resting on and pushed along its upper edge, as 
needed. Amber or Xylonite (transparent) triangles 
should be used in preference to the black rubber 
ones. You may observe your pencil lines and marks 
through them while working, and it is easier to keep 
them clean. Note, also, that you get them with 
bevels on the inner edges. These can be readily lifted 
with the finger nail, thus saving annoyance or acci- 
dent. A 30° by 60° triangle, 6 inches long, can be 
bought for 40 cents. Do not use any so-called " let- 
tering" triangles. In drawing vertical lines, the tri- 
angle is manipulated as follows: with the fingers of 



the left hand hold the head of the T-square in posi- 
tion, pressed against the left edge of the drawing 
board. With your right hand place the triangle 
above and resting against the upper edge of the T- 
square blade, so that the right angle of the triangle is 
to the left. Now move the fingers of your left hand 
along the T-square blade, pressing slightly to the 
right, while sliding towards the triangle. As you 
reach it, hold it with first and middle fingers, firmly 
pressing it down to the edge of the T-square blade, 
at the same time keeping hold of the T-square blade 
with thumb, fourth and fifth fingers, while drawing 
line with right hand. This seemingly difficult and 
awkward manipulation will become easier with con- 
stant practice. Run your eye along the edge of the 
T-square or triangle when drawing lines. Keep 
your pen or pencil inclined at the same angle frorr. 
beginning to end of line. This is very important 
See that your arm and elbow are free to move anf 
that there are no obstructions or tools, which migh 
hinder your movements, lying about your drawin 
board, before starting to draw the line. Lines ar 
nearly always drawn to the left of the triangle, th^ 
being the lighted side. While working thus wit 
the triangle try to encourage a habit of occasional] 
running your left hand to the head of the T-squar 
pressing it against the edge of the drawing board, 
assure correct position. Use your hands only, ar 
never resort to thumb tacks or weights to hold 
square or triangle in place. 

The Drawing Instruments. In purchasing a set 
of drawing instruments the beginner should bear m 
mind that good materials are necessary to make a 



10 



good drawing. Most people labor under the mis- 
taken idea that a cheap outfit will do to start with, 
and think it time enough to get better tools, when 
they shall have learned how to use them. A set of 
fine instruments is a good investment and can be 
used for all time. Learn to use them at the start, 
then you can acquire the ability to work with ac- 
curacy, which is of prime importance. If you can- 
not afford a full set of first class tools, it is a better 
plan to buy a few only at the start, say the com- 
passes and ruling pen, and add bow spacers, dividers; 
etc., later on. See that your instruments are always 
clean and bright, and occasionally polish them up 
with chamois. 

The Compasses are used for spacing, measuring 
and drawing circles and arcs. With the lengthening 
bar added, the largest curves can be made. Except 
cor borders, this extension bar is rarely used for let- 
ering. Circles up to 12 inches in diameter can be 
drawn without it. In purchasing compasses, see 
lat you get one with movable or pivot knee joints 
nd adjustable legs, also with interchangeable needle- 
oint, pen- and pencil-points. One leg has a steel 
eedle clamped to it. For drawing circles with pen 
\ r pencil the shouldered point of this needle should 
e used. When spacing or measuring, the other end 
the needle is more appropriate. On the other leg 
" the compasses the steel point can be removed by 
osening the clamping screw, and the pencil- or 
n-point inserted. In doing this, note that the 
t'j-"aight or inner side of pen is opposite the other 
I 'j,, and the curved side faces outward. The pencil- 
point also has an outer and inner surface, and the 



thumb screw should always be on the outside. Be 
careful to push in pen- or pencil-point as far as it 
will go, and secure it with the clamping screw be- 
fore using. It is important to always have the needle- 
point even with the pen- or pencil-point, so, after 
inserting pen- or pencil-attachment, close the instru- 
ment, and, loosening the clamping screw, set the 
needle-point to the length of the pen- or pencil-point, 
and clamp well. After each sharpening of pencil- 
lead always see that it is brought to correspond to 
the length of the shoulder of the needle-point. To 
draw a circle or curve, insert needle-point in ex- 
act center mark, to shoulder of needle, and push it 
straight down into the drawing board. Remove 
compasses and open them, setting the legs to the re- 
quired radius, and bending the knee-joints. Insert 
needle-point in hole again and try the distance. The 
needle-point must be held in an upright position, 
while doing this, so the hole in the paper may not 
be unnecessarily enlarged. Never incline your com- 
passes while holding the needle-point inserted. In- 
stead, bend at the knee-joint, until the radius wanted 
is reached. Also bend the pivot-joint of pen- or 
pencil-point correspondingly. When drawing cir- 
cles or arcs with the pen, especial notice must be 
taken to have the pen-point vertical with the knee- 
joint, as otherwise both nibs of the pen will not touch 
the paper simultaneously, and a perfect line cannot 
result. After filling the pen, as directed under 
" Ruling Pen," take the compasses by the little han- 
dle on top of instrument, and turn, beginning the 
line at the lowest point, and drawing upward and to 
the right (never reverse) until the circle is com- 



II 



plete. Try this on a small piece of paper, before 
beginning on your drawing, to make sure that your 
pen works well. If a break in the line should occur, 
redraw line, as before, from left to right. The com- 
passes are held slightly inclined forward, insuring a 
better flow of ink and making an even, clean line. 
For lead pencil work always have your lead nicely 
sharpened before beginning the drawing. The com- 
pass-lead should be flattened on one side to a chisel 
edge, and placed in the pencil holder with this flat, 
sharp edge toward the outside of the leg. For small 
circles use the bow-pen or bow-pencil. After read- 
ing over these instructions, it would be well to take 
up your compasses, handle the instrument carefully 
and study its mechanism, while going over this lesson 
again. 

The Ruling- or Drawing-Pen, also called Right 
Line Pen, is made of one piece of steel, with a handle 
of ebony or ivory. It has two tongues, called nibs, 
connected by a thumb screw. By turning the screw 
the nibs are brought together or separated, for a fine 
or a heavy line. As set by this screw, a line drawn 
by the ruling pen is always uniform in width and in 
this respect differs from a line drawn by the writing 
pen, where the thickness varies according to the pres- 
sure employed. Ruling pens are also made with 
spring- and jointed nibs, with three and more blades. 
The ruling pen is never used without a guide, such 
as the T-square, triangle or rule. It is held firmly, 
yet lightly, between the fingers. Handle it as you 
would your pencil. Proceed to fill the pen with ink. 
One way to do this is to use a quill, which comes 
attached to the cork of some brands of fluid ink. An- 



other method is to dip the pen into the ink, as with 
writing pens. Gare must be taken, however, to al- 
ways wipe the outside of the pen before using, as 
otherwise a blot is almost certain to result. Little 
ink should be fed into the ruling pen at a time. In 
working with pen and ink, your first aim should be 
to make sharp, clear lines, and to connect them 
smoothly and evenly with arcs as well as making 
sharp corners. Some letterers work in the curves 
and circles first when employed on a drawing, and 
the straight lines last. They claim it is easier to run 
the straight lines to meet the curves flush. But, as 
many draughtsmen work the opposite way. Run 
the pen along the T-square blade, from left to right 
only. For vertical lines draw the pen strokes up- 
ward, when working on left edge of the T-square or 
triangle. On the right hand side you will find it 
more convenient to run the lines downward. But 
when working on the right hand side, change the 
position of the drawing board, to get a good light. 
Hold the pen upright, so that both nibs rest on the 
paper evenly, and with screw head pointing out- 
ward. Do not incline your pen to the left when 
drawing vertical, nor toward the top when running 
horizontal lines. The point is liable to get too close 
to the T-square or triangle edge and the ink would 
spread along it. The rounded shape of the pen- 
point prevents this, when the pen is held in the 
proper way. Incline your pen slightly forward 
when drawing lines, thus assisting in the flow of ink. 
Rest the little finger on the triangle or T-square 
blade. Draw the pen along the guide with an even, 
gentle pressure. Before beginning work on your 



12 



drawing, try the pen on a bit of paper. A lot of 
practice is necessary to acquire proficiency with the 
ruling pen. Practice ruling lines, long lines, short 
lines, try to make them uniform in thickness, clean, 
and at even distances from each other. Practice 
running lines side by side, to the left, to the right, 
horizontal as well as vertical, until all lines are clear 
and even. When done with your pen, always clean 
it with a piece of chamois, or part of old glove, or 
even a piece of clean, white cotton fabric, and rub 
to a fine polish. Insert a corner of your cleaning 
cloth or leather between the nibs of the pen and 
carefully draw it through towards the point. Re- 
peat with clean edge of cloth, also wiping exterior 
parts of the pen. Finally polish inside and out. It is 
of greatest importance that this operation be gone 
through every day when using the pen and before 
putting it away. Do not detach the screw. Always 
have your cleaning cloth handy. The best way is to 
attach it with a thumb tack to the right edge of 
drawing board. The pen needs cleaning frequently, 
while working. In summer especially the ink dries 
rapidly and thickens in the pen. The nibs should 
not be opened when cleaning while at work, The 
cloth can be inserted and drawn through before re- 
filling with ink, without touching the screw. A good 
ruling pen can be obtained for 75 cents. 

The Bow Spacers are an instrument for measur- 
ing small distances. With the two needle-points the 
most accurate work can be performed. Next to the 
compasses and ruling pen, the bow spacers are the 
most useful tool employed in the drawing of letters. 
It has a fine spring which tends to keep the legs of 



the instrument separated to the distance set by the 
adjusting screw, and for this reason is more reliable 
than the compasses. 

Open the instrument by turning the adjusting screw 
on the side of the leg, until the desired width is indi- 
cated by the points, then mark on your drawing by 
pushing the sharp points into the paper. See that the 
punctures are clearly marked. For spacing equal 
distances walk bow spacers along the line, lifting 
the right and left leg of the instrument alternately 
and pricking the paper with the needle-points. It 
is good practice to press the legs of the bow spacers 
together with the fingers, when opening or closing 
the instrument, thereby saving the fine thread of the 
adjusting screw. For larger spacing use the divid- 
ers. 

By inserting the Bow-Pen- or Bow-Pencil-attach- 
ments you are enabled to draw the smallest arcs and 
circles. Take care, however, to insert the appliances 
correctly into the shank, to push them in as far as 
they go, and to clamp them well with the clamping 
screw, before employing them. See that the straight 
or inner side of the pen-point is facing toward the 
other leg or that the screw of the pencil-point is on 
the outside of the instrument. Also adjust the 
needle-point, until its shoulder is even with the pen- 
or pencil-point. Distinguish between spacer-point 
and the shouldered point of the needle. As to hand- 
ling the bow-pen and -pencil for drawing circles, see 
the directions for " The Compasses." When very 
small circles or arcs are to be made, the needle-point 
must be pushed back until both nibs of the pen rest 
upon the paper evenly. For large circles use the 



13 



compasses. Clean you bow pen carefully while us- 
ing and afterwards. See the directions for the use 
of the ruling pen. Separate bow spacers, bow pen- 
cils and bow pens can be bought, and the busy artist 
will save valuable time by using them, and avoiding 
the changing of the needle-point-, pencil-point- or 
pen-point-attachments. 

The Dividers are an instrument like the compasses 
in appearance, having fixed needle-points only, but 
with a hair spring and adjusting screw attachment, 
similar to that of the bow spacers. It is used for ex- 
act work in spacing and measurements, where the 
bow spacers are found too small to reach. Get one 
without the clamp at the top, for this is unnecessary 
and bothersome. By handling this instrument care- 
fully and adjusting it to the required distance by the 
small thumb screw at its side, you should be able to 
trace the exact dimensions of letters without a slip. 
Like the bow spacers it has two needle-points, de- 
signed to prick spacing marks into the drawing pa- 
per. The legs are opened a little more than the 
required width, then with the screw, set the points 
to the correct size wanted. When it is desired to 
copy a letter to twice its size, take dimensions of 
original, and with the points of dividers mark your 
drawing paper, then, keeping one leg in position, 
raise the other leg and swing it around to a point 
opposite, piercing the paper and marking the double 
distance. The adjusting screw should never be 
removed, and the instrument should be closed before 
putting it back into the case. You may substitute 
your compasses for use as dividers by employing the 
pricking point of needle, and inserting the steel- or 



plain-point in the pencil-leg, but the dividers are 
more reliable on account of the hair spring and ad- 
justing screw. For small spacing use the bow 
spacers. 

Lead Pencils. It is essential to have all your tools 
in perfect working order. Your pencils are of no 
less importance than any other instrument. Always 
have several of them on hand, nicely sharpened. 

To sharpen the pencil a very sharp penknife is 
required. Hold the pencil in the left hand, with its 
point toward you, and, resting it against the thumb 
of your right hand, carefully slice off the wood 
smoothly and evenly, bringing it to a long taper, and 
exposing the lead for about half an inch at the end. 
It will take some practice to perform this feat with- 
out breaking the lead, but soon you will be able to 
do it without accident. Now rub the lead lightly 
on a sandpaper sharpener, holding the pencil nearly 
horizontal, rolling it from side to side and around, 
until the lead takes on a nicely tapering, sharp point. 
Smooth off the roughness of lead, finally, on a piece 
of drawing paper, and you have a fine pencil-point 
to work with. Resharpen the point every little 
while. Do not cut the lettered end of pencils, as the 
marks are necessary to note the grade. The com- 
pass leads should be sharpened to a flat edge. See 
the directions given under " The Compasses." 

When starting to study the proportions and shape 
of letters, the beginner should make the drawing on 
a large scale. Enlarge the letter two or four times 
the size of the original. Take plain paper first, and 
copy the outline of the letters freehand. Your 
pencil work should be as accurate as possible. No 



14 



amount of skill in pen work can ever make good the 
defects of faulty pencil work. Draw all lines from 
the top down and from left to right, when sketching 
letters. Practice sketching the letters freehand 
in long, light and even strokes first, then use the in- 
struments. When using a rule, T-square or triangle, 
always start the line from the bottom upwards, ex- 
cept when working to the right of the guide. Hold 
your pencil at exactly the same angle from begin- 
ning to end of line. All practice work is done in 
pencil first. Use a hard pencil, 6 H., in laying out 
contours of letters. Work with long, even strokes, 
making a very light line only. This can easily be 
removed with the rubber, if necessary. After you 
have finally succeeded in getting a correct outline, 
it will be time enough to go over the outline with a 
softer pencil, say 3 H. The lines should be thin and 
sharp. Try to finish the drawing without use of the 
rubber, making the letter stand out clear and dis- 
tinct. When a drawing is to be finished in ink, do 
not use a soft pencil. Also do not press on the pencil 
while drawing lines, as this would leave a groove 
on the paper, which might seriously interfere with 
the inking-in process. Draw your pencil lines clear 
through centers, let them sweep over top and below 
bottom lines. Do not start or stop at the corners, 
where they terminate. You will find it easier to make 
sharp corners with your pen, if the pencil lines run 
through. Before starting to work in ink, all pencil 
lines not wanted, should be removed, so that the re- 
maining lines show clear and sharp. After all ink 
lines have been completed, the pencil marks are re- 
moved by the wedge-shaped pencil eraser. Be care- 



ful to skirt the ink lines as much as possible. Rub- 
bing is apt to dull the appearance of the black ink 
lines. The drawing is finally cleaned with sponge 
rubber. This cleaning up is to be done very care- 
fully. Too much rubbing will injure fine, sharp 
ink lines. Go over the soiled spots of the drawing 
paper gently, and rub no more than necessary. After 
cleaning and carefully dusting off, the drawing is 
ready for the final pointing up and filling in with 
ink. 

Rubber. To remove pencil lines a wedge-shaped 
soft white pencil eraser is used. This rubber does 
not roughen or injure the drawing paper, while it 
effectually cleans away all lead pencil marks. Black 
sponge rubber is generally employed for cleaning 
drawing paper. A generous piece of it can be bought 
for 30 cents. 

A Pencil Pointer is made by glueing strips of sand- 
paper to a small slat of wood. You may cut it from 
a cigar box. Let it be two inches wide by nine long, 
— the length of an ordinary cigar box — allowing 
three inches for the handle. Now cut strips of No. 
I sandpaper, to cover one side of the wood, with the 
exception of the handle, and glue them on. Pencil 
pointers are sold for from 20 to 30 cents. 

Writing Pens. For freehand lettering, pointing 
up and filling in, Gillott's pens, No. 303, are gener- 
ally used by letterers, but No. 404 will be found ex- 
cellent for all-around work. A gross box costs 65 
cents. Writing pens are employed for all but straight 
lines on small lettering and ornaments. 

Thumb Tacks. Select those with flat heads, so 
the T-square may slide over them easily while you 



15 



are at work. When inserting in the paper, slant 
them slightly, thus assisting in the stretching of the 
drawing paper. Press them down with the thumb 
as far as they will go. Use a lifter when removing 
them. "Government" or "Silver Steel" thumb 
tacks are made on a new principle, the points will 
not push through the heads, nor pull out. They cost 
from 35 cents per loo upwards, with lifter. For 
stretching paper see the directions under " Drawing 
Paper." 

India or Chinese Ink only is used for all drawings. 
Writing inks of any kind are barred. The best India 
ink comes in sticks or cakes, and should be ground 
in water fresh whenever used. But inasmuch as this 
means the loss of much time, to be done properly, 
the fluid inks are generally employed. Buy a small 
bottle at a time. Keep bottle well corked, to exclude 
dust and dirt, and, also, to prevent disaster. The 
cost is about 25 cents. A bottle-holder is sold at 30 
cents. 

Drawing Paper. The beginner requires sketch- 
ing- paper of the plainest kind only, for his pencil 
work. Get the smooth sort. It can be bought by the 
yard. Later in the course, when the lettering is to 
be finished in ink, the drawing paper should be of 
good quality. There are numerous brands of paper 
in the market, and they are almost all of excellent 
quality. Smooth paper only should be used for let- 
tering. The drawing paper may be cut somewhat 
smaller than the drawing board. The cross piece on 
each end of the board, being of tougher wood, the 
thumb tacks cannot easily be employed on them. 
The paper is tacked upon the drawing board, square 



16 



with left and lower edges. Use the T-square to in- 
sure accuracy. Get the right or finished side of pa- 
per uppermost. To find the right side hold paper 
up to the light and look for the watermark. The 
side from which the lettering or manufacturer's trade 
mark is readable, represents the right, or working 
side. If no watermarks can be found, lay the paper 
upon the drawing board, and with your fingers 
gently rub over the surface, first of one, then the 
other side. Select the smoothest side to work on. 
To stretch the paper upon the drawing board, put a 
tack into the center of the top edge of the paper, 
pressing it well down with thumb, then gently, but 
firmly rub down with the fingers of the left hand to 
the middle of bottom edge, and place another tack 
there. Now run your hand over the paper, starting 
from the center, towards the right edge, putting 
down a tack at about the middle point, and then, 
sliding hand to left over the paper, fasten the edge 
there likewise. Starting again from center of the 
sheet, rub your hand towards each corner in succes- 
sion, and, holding the paper firmly, insert tacks also. 
Make sure of pressing the tacks down hard with your 
thumb. If more tacks are necessary, put them in be- 
tween the. others, always pressing the paper down 
first, from the center outward. 

When the student of lettering has passed the experi- 
mental stage and enters into the competition for hon- 
ors and material remuneration, he will become more 
painstaking in the execution of his art as well as in 
the selection of materials. The first thing, then, is to 
substitute fine paper, and heavier, say three- or four- 
ply, or bristol board, for the cheaper grades used for 



practising. The paper may then be mounted on the 
drawing board. This method insures more comfort- 
able work, as there are no thumb tacks used, and the 
T-square and triangle may be moved over the work- 
ing surface of the paper more easily and without 
obstruction. When the finished drawing is to be re- 
moved from the board, it is simply cut along the 
outer edge and lifted out. The remaining pasted 
edges may then be soaked with warm water, and 
after a while the strips can be pulled off, and small 
particles still adhering, cleaned away with the pen- 
knife. Care should be taken not to use too much 
water, nor to get any moisture upon the drawing 
board, as this would tend to raise the grain of the 
wood, and might even warp it out of shape. 

To mount the paper, first find the right side. 
Make sure your board is smooth, if not, remove all 
particles of paper or glue, and sandpaper any rough- 
ness. With the paper right side up, cut off about an 
inch of the corners diagonally. Turn up the edges 
of paper and lay the sheet over on the other side. 
Soak paper well and evenly with clean water and 
sponge, except the edges. Now lay the paper over on 
the drawing board with right side up. Let the edges 
of paper be parallel with the edges of drawing board. 
Paste the top edge and turn it down, pressing it upon 
the board from center of the sheet outward, to both 
ends. (Photo paste is good to use.) When fastened 
down sufficiently, paste opposite edge of paper. Turn 
down and rub from center outward, as before, but 
with a downward motion, designed to stretch the pa- 
per. Finally repeat pasting process, first on one, 
then on the other of remaining edges, stretching well 



outward, while rubbing with the palms of the hands. 
Stand your drawing board on edge, until the paper 
is dry, when it will be found stretched tightly. 

The first thing to do, on starting the drawing, is 
to square off the paper, put in the center line, and 
draw three lines around the working space. The 
first, or outer line represents the cutting line, and 
along this pencil line the penknife is used, to cut 
and remove the finished drawing from the board. 
(Do not use the T-square or triangle as a guide when 
cutting with knife.) The second, or middle line is 
for the border. The third, or inner line is drawn to 
keep the reading matter exactly within its limits. 

A Flat Rule, graduated to eighths and sixteenths 
of inches, is handy for ruling lines and rough meas- 
urements for sketching and pencil work. For pur- 
poses of taking dimensions of letters as well as for 
spacing, &c., compasses, dividers or bow spacers are 
used. A strip of cross-section paper, divided ten 
squares to the inch, is a valuable adjunct to the let- 
tered Keep a strip, two inches wide, by six or eight 
inches long, pushed under the right edge of your 
drawing paper. With a pencil mark the spaces, di- 
mensions, width of letters, thickness of lines, &c., on 
the strip, and compare proportions as you proceed. 
While not as accurate as the measurements marked 
by the bow spacers and other instruments, this paper 
scale will be found very handy and useful. 

Cross-section Paper is drawing paper, ruled in 
small squares. It is a very convenient article for the 
student when copying letters on an enlarged scale. 
The ruling is also done on transparent or tracing 
paper. 



17 



Transfer Paper. The black carbon paper, sold at 
art material stores, is not suitable for transferring de- 
signs, as the carbon generally contains oil and the 
marks are difficult to remove. Instead you can easily 
construct a piece of transfer paper by blackening a 
sheet of thin, white paper on one side with a lead 
pencil, and this may be used for a long while. Take 
a sheet of note paper, unruled, thin, white; unglazed 
bond paper would serve best. When pointing your 
lead pencils, you may save the lead powder and use 
it to rub into the sheet with a small rag. Be careful 
to keep the other side clean. The paper should be 
blackened evenly and well up to the edges. When 
done, any excess of the powder is carefully shaken 
off, and the sheet further cleaned and the lead sur- 
face smoothed and tempered by rubbing it with a 
piece of soft paper with a circular motion, until 
the sheet shows an even and unbroken dark gray 
color. 

Tracing Paper or -Cloth. When you have drawn 
a design on sketching paper and desire to carry it 
over to the drawing paper to be finished in ink, a 
piece of tracing paper or tracing cloth Is spread over 
the design and fastened at the edges with thumb 
tacks. With a sharp pointed pencil the lines are 
then traced very carefully on the tracing paper. 
When finished, both the sketch and tracing are re- 
moved from the board. The drawing paper or card 
board is now mounted on the drawing board, as di- 
rected under " Drawing Paper," and the tracing 
securely fastened over it, taking good care, however, 
to first square it by the use of the T-square, before 
putting the thumb tacks in place. Between the 



drawing paper and the tracing a sheet of trans- 
fer paper is inserted with the white or clean side up. 
This may be shifted when necessary, by removing 
a tack or two and fastening down securely again 
when placed. The lines of the design are now re- 
drawn with painstaking care. A very hard and well 
pointed pencil is used. It is necessary to keep the 
paper smooth, and in shifting, to avoid even a frac- 
tional movement of the design or tracing. 

Irregular Curves are sometimes necessary or help- 
ful in the construction of borders for inscriptions 
or advertisements, also in drawing ellipses and the 
curved arrangement of a line of lettering. They 
are never employed in the shaping of letters. Use 
transparent curves in preference to black rubber or 
wooden ones. Select two that show the longest and 
most graceful lines. When using part of an irregu- 
lar curve to draw a border, and, having drawn with 
pencil the line wanted, mark at beginning and end 
of the line, on the paper as well as on the implement, 
so that the particular part of curve can be found 
again when inking in. It may also be necessary to 
reverse the curve to continue the design, or to carry 
over the contours on the opposite side of the border, 
but it is a better plan to use tracing paper for this 
purpose. As used for ellipses see the directions un- 
der "Ellipses," page 30, and also "The Border," 
page 121. 

Brushes. Black or red sable brushes are employed 
in the course of lettering for the final filling out with 
ink of the spaces betwen the outlines of large letters. 
To correct mistakes of overdrawn ink lines and spots 
by painting out with white color, a very fine brush 



is used. Brushes, mounted in metal ferrules, with 
handles are preferable. Nos. five or six may be 
selected for the ink work, No. one for the white 
color. 

Clean out the brushes in water, as soon as done 
with them. Take special care not to let the ink 
harden in your brush. Lay them into a case or box, 
flat, so as to keep the hair straight and smooth. 

Ink Eraser. To remove an ink spot or fraction 
of inked line a sharp steel eraser is used. To make 
a perfect erasure, so that it cannot be noticed, is a 
very delicate operation, because the smooth paper 
will be roughened. The spot may finally be flat- 
tened and polished by rubbing with the bone handle 
of the eraser. Ink rubber should not be used. 

The correction of faulty ink lines and spots on 
drawings intended for photographic reproduction is 
a simple operation. If an error is made, finish your 
drawing first, and after all pencil marks and mussed 
spots have been cleaned off, correct the faulty line 
by painting over with white color, as directed under 
" Water Color, White," in the article below. Adver- 
tisement designs are made for reproduction only, and 



in themselves represent merely a means to that 
end. 

Water Color, White. A cake or pan of white color 
is used to paint out errors on finished pen work in- 
tended for mechanical reproduction. Take a very 
small brush, dip into water and rub on cake or pan. 
The moist color will yield quicker. When rubbed 
thick and creamy, apply to the spot to be obliterated, 
taking care to confine the operation to the inked 
portion only, and not to daub the paper. The white 
line at the edge should be cut sharply. A second ap- 
plication of white color may be necessary after the 
first coating has dried thoroughly. 

Sheet Gelatine is used by some letterers for trans- 
ferring designs, measuring, &c., and also as a support 
for the compass- or bow pen-points, when drawing 
circles or arcs, to avoid tearing large holes in the 
drawing paper. 

Its use is not recommended, as the practice is 
liable to soil the paper. When the compasses are 
employed properly, the drawing paper should not 
become torn, and the use of tracing paper fills all the 
other requirements. 



PART II— PRACTICE WORK 



Position as to light. Always do your work in the drawing lines with the T-square and triangle, that 
best light obtainable. Get nearest the window, by having the correct position, no shadows fall on 
North light is the best, light from the east the next the working side of your paper, and your eyes will 
best. See that the light falls on your drawing board be saved. The drawing board may be laid flat upon 
from the left upper corner. You will notice, when the table, or slightly inclined at the top. 

19 



Plate I 
The Guide Lines 



When lines are to be drawn on the right, or shade 
side, swing your drawing board around, so the bot- 
tom edge will be at the top, but do not change your 
position, nor that of the T-square. The horizontal 
top lines of letters are drawn in the same manner. 

Practice work. Your daily practice work should 
be done in the following order. Select the proper 
place to work, with reference to light, as above. 
Dust and carefully wipe drawing board, T-square, 
triangle, &c., with dry cloth. Sharpen and point 
pencils and compass lead. See that your hands are 
clean. Stretch drawing paper upon the board. (See 
under "Drawing Paper.") Square off the paper 
and put in the guide lines. 

Guide Lines. (Plate I). You may start in to 
copy the first three letters of the Roman alphabet 
from Plate 2, " Mechanical construction." The let- 
ters are, say, i inch high, so you should make your 
copy 2 inches. Divide your sheet of drawing paper 
into two inch squares. Be very accurate to have all 
squares exactly alike. Draw even, thin, sharp lines. 
Beginning from the top line, the first space of squares 
is to be filled with letters, the next one below left 
blank, the following one is for letters again and so 
on. Now, with bow spacers measure width of hair 
lines of letters, and mark from top and bottom line 
of first space on drawing paper the double distance, 
then draw lines from the marks, parallel with the 
others. Do the same with the other letter spaces. 
You are now ready to begin the sketching in of the 
letters into the squares. This is done freehand, in 
long, light, sweeping strokes of the pencil. By meas- 
uring the width of letter and comparing it with its 



height you will arrive at the proportions relative to 
its position in the square. The Roman A is much 
wider than it is high. It should be started from the 
center and top line of the first square, and the serifs, 
or spurs, extended outside of the square. See first 
example on plate i. 

The letter B is then sketched into the third square, 
leaving the second square to intervene. Place the 
lines for the heavy, or down stroke, just within the 
square. 

C, like O and G, &c., is a round letter, and can be 
placed almost wholly within the square. 

All letters are sketched in freehand and no rule 
or instrument whatever is used for guide or measure- 
ment. The proportions must be studied out and 
copied with care. Fill in the remaining squares on 
your drawing paper with the letters A, B and C as 
above, always trying to improve on the letter pre- 
viously made. After finishing a letter, examine it 
from one side first, then from the other, and also 
looking at it from the top, or upside down. You 
will thus find deficiencies in the roundness of the 
curves and the shape generally. These shortcomings 
should be corrected, however, from the original 
position as you sit before your drawing board. Each 
example must be carefully studied and practised un- 
ceasingly, until the student has brought out every 
line and curve as correctly as possible. 

When you think that you have copied the letters 
as well as you can, clean them off with sponge rub- 
ber, until only faint lines remain. Over these you 
may now proceed with your instruments, guided by 
the rules on the " Mechanical construction " plate. 



22 



Lay T-square across drawing board, with its head 
against the left edge. Place triangle in position 
against top edge of T-square blade, so as to reach 
slightly above top lines of drawing. Now with sharp 
pencil draw all vertical lines along left edge of tri- 
angle, starting at the extreme left and working to- 
wards the right, until all lines are drawn. The 
exact width of hair- and body-lines is determined by 
measurement with the bow spacers, dividers, or a 
piece of cross-section paper. Next slide T-square 
down the board, until the triangle again reaches just 
above the height of lines to be drawn. Proceed as 
before, beginning at the left, and so on, until all 
vertical lines have been drawn. Removing the T- 
square, all diagonal lines are drawn next, by the use 
of the triangle. Attention must be given at all times 
to get uniform widths of hair lines and body lines. 
Now discard the triangle and draw horizontal lines 
along the T-square edge, beginning at the top and 
working along from left to right, to the end of blade. 
Then lower the T-square and, as the lines come into 
view repeat the operation all the way down the sheet. 
Do not have any instruments on the drawing board 
and in your way. When all straight lines have been 
gone over, remove T-square and take up your com- 
passes. With the pencil point draw all circles and 
arcs, as told under "The Compasses." Begin from 
the top line and work downward, doing the large 
circles first. Let your arcs run flush with the straight 
lines. The bottom and top lines of the letters are 
finished by the T-square last of all. To do the top 
lines conveniently, the drawing board is turned 
around, until the bottom edge is at the top. With 



the T-square head pressed against the same edge as 
before, (now on the right) draw the top lines of let- 
ters (now at the bottom). (See also "The T- 
square," "The Triangle," "The Lead pencils" and 
"The Compasses.") 

After you have succeeded in making good copies 
of the first three letters of the alphabet, preserve the 
best sheet, destroying those containing the inferior 
studies. On a fresh sheet continue with the next 
three letters, D, E and F, and so on, down to Z, and 
the numerals. 

The sheets of drawing paper containing the best 
copies of letters are finally scrutinized, and if no im- 
provement can be made on any of them, they may be 
worked out in ink. (See under " The Ruling pen," 
"The Compasses," &c.) A better way, which in- 
sures cleaner work, is to trace the drawings upon a 
fresh sheet. (Consult the article " Tracing-Paper or 
-Cloth.") When all your letters are done, compare 
them with the originals in the book and make a new 
drawing for any found deficient. 

Take good care of your drawing instruments, wipe 
them after each handling. 

Always remember that the light should fall upon 
your work from the upper left corner of drawing 
board. 

Take your time to work out lettering. Go slow. 
Good work cannot be done in a hurry. Lettering 
requires patience. 

When working on a drawing, keep your paper as 
clean as possible. A lot of mussing can be avoided 
by covering up all portions of the drawing below 
the working line. Use tracing paper, or even clean 



23 



Plate II 

Modern Roman 

Mechanical Construction 1 







J] 




s. 






Plate III 

Modern Roman 

Mechanical Construction 2 










■» * 





Plate IV 

Modern Roman 

Mechanical Construction 3 



wrapping paper, and thumb tacks. After the top 
line of lettering has been inked in, shift your cover- 
ing to below the next line and so on. 

After proficiency in the use of the instruments has 
been attained, lettering is always finished by their 
use. At this stage the freehand work is allowable 
only in the sketching of letters. 

Freehand work should again be encouraged on 
all but straight lines, when the student has mastered 
the art so far as to be able to draw all the letters to 
perfection. 

Ellipses. The construction of an ellipse, while a 
difficult and laborious proposition for the student of 
mechanical drawing, can be narrowed down to a 
simple manipulation for the purposes of the practi- 
cal letterer. In this respect elliptical lines are rarely 
used for anything but borders or frames of adver- 
tisements, and inscriptions on plans, memorials, &c. 

An oval or elliptical border is a most handsome 
thing, although it eats up a lot of costly space when 
used for an advertisement. 

One method of drawing an ellipse, and the easiest 
of all, is to employ a section of the outer edge of an 
irregular curve. You can make ovals in any shape, 
full pointed or flat. Use the curve for a quarter sec- 
tion only. Divide the space on the drawing paper 
by a horizontal and a vertical center line. Draw 
elliptical line by guide of the irregular curve, but 
do one-half or one-quarter section only, and use 
tracing paper to construct the rest. (See " Irregular 
Curves," page i8; also "Tracing Paper," page i8.) 

Another method, and one that can be employed 
also on larger work, is to put in the center lines, as 



above, and then to use the compasses as in construct- 
ing the inner line of the letter O. (See " Mechani- 
cal construction of letters and numerals," page 31.) 
As given in books on geometry, one of different 
methods of drawing an ellipse is as follows : 




First determine the major and minor axes. Then 
draw straight lines R H and H Q, making any 
convenient angle at H. With center H and radii 
equal to the semi-minor and semi-major axes re- 
spectively, describe arcs L M and N O. Join L O 



30 



and draw M K and N P parallel to L O. Lay off 
Li^^ of LN. Join Oi and draw M2 and N3 paral- 
lel to Oi. Take IJ3 for the longest radius (^T), 
H2 for the shortest radius (^E), and one-half the 
sum of the semi-axes for the third radius (=S) and 
use these radii to describe the ellipse as follows : Let 
AB and CD be the major and minor axes. Lay off 
A4=E and A5=S. Then lay off CG=T and C6=S. 
With G as center and G6 as radius draw the arc 6, g. 
With center 4 and radius 4 5, draw arc 5 g, intersect- 
ing 6, g at g. Draw the line Gg and produce it mak- 
ing G8~T. Draw g 4 and extend it to 7 making g 
7=S. 

With center G and radius GC (~T) draw the arc 
C8, with center g and radius g 8 (~S) draw the arc 
8 7. With center 4 and radius 4 7 (^E) draw arc 7 
A. The remaining quadrants can be drawn in the 
same way. 

MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION OF LET- 
TERS AND NUMERALS 

To lay down strict rules for the construction of 
the ideal lines of Roman letters seems a cruel under- 
taking, but as there should be a system by which the 
beginner may be taught, the author has endeavored 
to supply one according to his experience. 

These rules will gradually be superseded by sim- 
pler methods as the student acquires proficiency. 

Even the accomplished artist draws his guide lines 
to be eliminated after he has no further use for them. 

The drawing paper is first laid out in guide lines, 
as described under "Practice Work," page 19. 



A The letter A is sketched into the first square 
freehand and in light, clean lines. When 
you have succeeded in copying the letter from plate 
2, " Mechanical construction of letters," as well as 
you can, remove the pencil marks with sponge rub- 
ber, until only faint lines remain. With the triangle 
as a guide and a sharp pointed pencil draw the outer 
lines from the lower corners of square upward to the 
center of top line of square. The widths of hair- 
and body-lines are measured by the bow spacers or 
dividers and then marked on the drawing paper. 
The inner straight lines are now drawn accordingly 
and parallel with the outer lines. The length of the 
serifs or spurs on the bottom must then be determined 
and marked on the drawing. The arcs are run in 
with the compasses and pencil-point. (The centers 
for compass-point are indicated on the " Mechanical 
construction" plates by small stars.) Note the 
smaller and larger curves, as used for the slanting 
lines. The top and bottom lines are finally drawn 
along T-square edge. Observe that the pointed top 
of A extends above upper guide line. Remember 
that all the letters are first sketched in lightly, free- 
hand. (See " Practice Work," page 19.) 

Bin constructing B the first line of the down 
stroke or body line is drawn by the triangle 
edge, along the left side of the square. The width of 
body line is taken and marked on drawing, and the 
second line of the down stroke made parallel to the 
first. After the lengths of the two serifs have been 
marked and drawn the triangle is discarded and the 
middle hair line located slightly above center, 
marked and drawn. Next the outer semi-circles to 



31 



Plate V 
Modern Roman 1 



J 




AB 
EFG 









KL 



Plate VI 
Modern Roman 2 



MNOP 




RST 
UVWX 



Plate VII 
Modern Roman 3 



12345 

YZ 







O? 



• f • 



the right are made. Then the inner curves, after 
the widths of the body lines have been carefully 
measured. Note that the thickness is slightly fuller 
towards the middle part than that of the straight 
body lines. Observe also that the lower round body 
line is a little heavier than the upper one, and 
that the bottom portion of the letter is more ex- 
panded than the top. All letters look better when 
"weighted" towards the lower portion. The arcs 
for the serifs, and the top and bottom hair lines are 
drawn last. 

Find the exact point of center for your compasses 
so that the curves are run perfectly tangent with the 
straight lines. The construction lines are drawn 
heavier than the guide lines, and a softer pencil is 
used. 

CFrom a point in the exact center of square 
the outer curve of C is drawn with the com- 
passes. This line must slightly overreach the top 
and bottom guide lines. The straight line of serif at 
the right is next run down by the use of triangle 
edge. The centers for compass-point must now be 
found to extend the top and bottom outer curves 
toward the right. It is of the greatest importance to 
have the lines run flush with the semi-circle, so that 
they appear as one line and no break is noticeable 
where the two arcs join. The end of lower hair line 
is carried a little farther out than the upper, in 
order to better balance the shape of the letter. The 
inner curve to the left comes next, after the width of 
body line has been marked, then the inner lines on 
top and bottom, connecting it, are drawn. Note 
that the end of lower hair line is thickened. The 



38 



width of all hair lines must be uniform. The small 
arc on top of serif, the two short straight lines on 
serif and the one on end of lower hair line complete 
the letter. 

DAs in B, the two vertical lines for the down 
stroke of D are first drawn. The outer 
semi-circle to the right comes next, then the inner 
curve. Always obtain your measurements first. The 
small arches connecting inner curve and horizontal 
hair lines must be placed very accurately, so as to 
run flush with both, without showing a joint. The 
serifs are then drawn, as before. 

EThe vertical lines for the body line of E 
are drawn first, the same as for the letters B 
and D. The vertical lines of the brackets and center 
serif are made next, after their dimensions have been 
ascertained. Note that the lower bracket extends 
slightly beyond the line of the upper one, also that 
it is a little heavier. Measurements are now taken 
of the widths of brackets, and the diagonal lines 
drawn. The middle hair line is placed slightly above 
center of square. The serifs on top, bottom and on 
middle hair line are made, then the short end strokes 
and finally the top and bottom lines. 

FWith the exception of lower bracket, the con- 
struction of letter F is identical with that 
of E. 

GThe letter G is constructed like C and the 
lower body line is added by the use of the tri- 
angle. The serifs are drawn last. See that lower 
body line balances well with top serif. 

H Place letter H in the center of the square. 
The two body lines are drawn first, after their 



width has been marked. The middle hair line is 
next put in. Note that it is located just above the 
center. The serifs are now drawn and the letter 
finished by the top and bottom lines. The serifs must 
all be of uniform length. 

I Letter I is but a repetition of a part of former 
letters and its construction requires no special 
description. Place the I in the center of the square. 

J The body line of J is placed against the right 
side of the square. The arch at the bottom 
is then drawn toward the left and the ball added. 
Joining the lines of the ball so that they appear as 
one continuous curve requires accurate placing of 
compass point. The curve must reach just below the 
guide line. The serif and top line are drawn last. 

KA difficult letter is K. After drawing the 
lines of the vertical body line, the exact loca- 
tion of the diagonal hair line is of importance. When 
this has been put in, the next difficulty is the correct 
placing of the short diagonal body line. This must 
be sufficiently slanted so as to extend far enough be- 
yond the upper hair line to balance the position of 
the letter well. The serifs are now drawn. Special 
attention must be given to the bringing out of the 
proper values of the smaller and larger curves neces- 
sary to meet the slant of the lines. The top and bot- 
tom horizontals finish the letter. 

LThe construction of letter L is done under 
a partial repetition of the rules for making 
the E. 

MThe vertical lines of M are run exactly 
within the square. Draw the hair line to the 
left first, then the body line at the right. Next 
find the center between the two and mark on the bot- 



tom guide line. From this point draw the diagonal 
hair line upward. (An easy way to get the correct 
slant is to run in the top left serif arch first and then 
let the lower line of diagonal body line run up to 
meet it.) The serifs are all put in simultaneously, 
and then the diagonals drawn. The short end strokes 
and the top and bottom lines are finally done. Note 
that the point of center body line extends below 
guide line. 

N Similar to M the N is made. The two hair 
lines are drawn first, then the serifs, and the 
diagonal body line next. The short ends and top 
and bottom lines last. Remember that the point of 
body line must reach below guide line. 

OThe outer line of O is a simple circle, just 
overlapping the top and bottom guide lines. 
A horizontal and vertical guide line, drawn across 
the center point, will assist in finding the correct 
position of the compass centers, for drawing the in- 
ner long curves and also to connect them by the 
shorter curves of top and bottom inner lines. Note 
that the body lines are a little heavier in the middle 
portion than the straight body lines. See also that 
the hair lines, at their narrowest part, are of equal 
width with the straight hair lines. The small curves 
must run flush with the larger ones. 

PThe letter P is constructed on part of the 
principles of B except that the middle hair 
line is placed slightly below the center of square and 
that the outer semicircle extends outward as far as 
the lower curve of B. 

OFor Q draw an O as per directions above. 
The dash or tail at the bottom must be made 
gracefully and somewhat lighter than the body lines. 



39 



Plate VIII t 

Classic Roman 



4 



ABCDEM 
GHIKLNF 

OPQRS 
V 







Observe the compass centers to get the dash into the 
right position. 

R Another letter hard to make is R, and the 
obstacle to be overcome is the curious shape 
and position of its curled tail. The other parts of 
the letter are constructed as in B, The hooklike end 
of the tail or dash should stand out beyond the line 
of the upper semicircle, and also run fairly over 
and below the guide line. The curvature of the 
dash must be v^^ell studied, for upon its correct 
shape depends the expression of this letter. The 
large curves are alw^ays drawn first, the smaller ones 
last. Give ample width to the dash. 

SThe most difficult to draw of all letters is 
the S. Of advantage to the student, how- 
ever, is the fact that it will about fill the space within 
a square. The top and bottom hair lines are drawn 
first. Remember that the outer curves must extend 
just above and below the guide lines. One vertical 
center guide line, and two horizontal guide li_nes, 
equal to the width of the straight body lines, are 
drawn. The center between these guide lines should 
be a little above the center of the square. The outer 
semicircles are drawn to connect the upper hair line 
with the lower center guide line at the left, and the 
lower hair line with the upper center guide line at 
the right. Next the inner curves are made to con- 
nect the inner line of the top hair line with the 
upper center guide line, and the inner line of the 
bottom hair line with the lower center guide line. 
The width of the body line should be greater at the 
right and left curves than at the center part. The 
vertical lines of the serifs are now put in, the lower 



one on a line with the upper semicircle and the up- 
per straight line receding from the line of the lower 
outer curve on the right. This is done to balance 
the upper and lower portions of the letter. The 
short curves on both ends of the serifs are then 
drawn. All small curves must run flush into the 
larger ones. The short horizontal lines for the cen- 
ter body line are now made, tangent to the curves. 
Finally the short end lines are drawn. The letter S 
requires a great deal of study and practice to bring 
out the beauty of its shape. 

TA simple letter is T. As long as you get the 
measurements correct you cannot fail to make 
your copy an exact duplicate of the original. Place 
it right within the square. The body line is drawn 
first. Then the two brackets, which must be of uni- 
form length and thickness. Be careful not to get 
them too heavy. The serifs and top and bottom 
lines are done last. 

UThe proportions of U should be carefully 
studied. The body line is drawn first, then 
the vertical part of the hair line. Next the curves 
connecting the hair- and body-lines are run in. You 
must try with your compasses until you find the ex- 
act center point and have the curves meet the straight 
lines perfectly flush. The serifs and top lines com- 
plete the letter. 

VThe V is like A reversed, without the cross 
hair line, but much narrower than that letter. 
Draw the outer diagonals from the center of the 
lower line of the square, the inner lines parallel to 
the former. The serifs are measured and drawn as in 
A and the larger and smaller curves, as applied for 



42 



the slant, well studied. The short finishing line on 
the bottom end and the top lines are done last. The 
point must extend below the guide line. 

WThe widest letter of the alphabet, W, re- 
quires special study as to proportion. Light 
freehand sketching will determine the position of 
the two starting points from the lower guide line. 
The first body line and the last hair line are drawn 
at the start. Then the middle hair- and body-lines 
are run parallel with the first. The two open spaces 
between the upper portions of the letter must be 
exactly alike in size and shape. The serifs are then 
drawn with caution. Make use of the experience 
gained with letters K and V. The short end lines 
and the straight top lines finish the letter. Do not 
forget that the two points should reach below the 
bottom guide line. 

XA rather peculiar letter is X. The result to 
be aimed at, in the construction of this let- 
ter, is an even balance to right and left and also a 
smaller upper than lower portion. The waist line 
must consequently be raised above the center of 
square. Start the outer diagonal lines from the top 
corners of the square and let the hair line extend 
beyond the lower left corner. The second line of 
the body line must run outside of the square at the 
lower right corner likewise. The second outline of 
hair line is then put in and the effect studied. If 
they are balanced correctly, the serifs are drawn with 
the same attention to the right placing of the smaller 
and larger curves as in V and W. Then the short 
end strokes of the serifs and the top and bottom hori- 
zontals are drawn. 



YThe upper portion of the letter Y, resembling 
V, it is made on somewhat similar principles. 
The vertical body line is drawn in the center of the 
square. The outer diagonal lines are then put in, 
bringing the waist line on the right to about the 
center and the inner diagonal body line to connect 
at the same point. Thus the waist line on the left 
side will come considerably below the center. The 
outer diagonal lines are run outside the upper cor- 
ners of the square. The serif curves are now drawn, 
observing the correct placing of the larger and 
smaller curves, as for previous diagonals. The short 
end strokes and the top and bottom lines are then 
made. 

ZThe last letter of the alphabet, Z, fits into a 
square at the top, the bottom portion extend- 
ing outside of both corners. The diagonal body line 
is put in first, then the short vertical lines of the 
brackets. The diagonals of the brackets are next 
drawn. The lower bracket may be a trifle heavier 
than the upper one. The short ends are then fin- 
ished and the top and bottom hair lines drawn. 

THE NUMERALS 

IWith the exception of part of the top serif the 
figure I is identical with the letter I and is 
constructed accordingly. 

2 The 2 about occupies a square. Much study is 
required to balance the figure properly. To 
bring out its grace of outline untiring practice is 
necessary. The top hair line is done first. Run the 
upper curve slightly above guide line. Next the hair 



43 



Flate IX 
French Roman 1 



ABCDE 

FGHIJ 

KLMNO 



II 



Plate X 
French Roman 2 



PQRST 
UVWXY 



line is drawn from the left lower corner of the 
square up, toward the center. The inner line of the 
upper body line is then run in, connecting the in- 
ner line of the top hair line with the lower hair 
line. The second line of the lower hair line is now 
run from below and upward, observing that the 
width of the hair line must at its narrowest point 
correspond to the width of the straight hair lines. 
The curved outer line to the right is drawn by two 
successive center points. The lower body line or 
tail is done next. The peculiar swing must be care- 
fully copied. The long curves are drawn first, the 
lower one reaching a trifle below the guide line, 
the smaller ones last. Note that the body lines are 
a little fuller than the straight body lines. The ball 
at the top comes next and great accuracy is neces- 
sary to run in the small curves as one continuous 
line. The figure is finished by the short strokes at 
the bottom. 

3 The proper shaping of figure 3 demands even 
more study and practice than that of 2. This 
numeral also is just about as wide as a square. Note 
how much smaller is the upper portion than the 
lower. The top and bottom hair lines, just reach- 
ing above and below the guide lines, are drawn 
first, then the round body lines, somewhat like those 
of the letter B, the lower one a little heavier than 
the upper. The balls are then added to top and 
bottom ends, and again the lower one must be a 
trifle fuller. Examine the work critically to see 
whether the figure is properly balanced. If not, 
try again. The short straight line to finish the cen- 
ter end is done last. 



48 



4 The 4 is of comparatively easy construction, but 
its width is perplexing. Place the figure in the 
square so that the vertical line of the serif on the 
right end of the hair line rests on the right side of 
the square. The body line is drawn first. Then the 
horizontal hair line. The correct location of this 
cross line is important. Next comes the diagonal 
hair line, which must run out to the left sufficiently 
far to balance the serif end on the right. This serif 
is smaller than usual. The point on top must ex- 
tend above the guide line. The serifs are now 
drawn and the short ends finished. 

5 To construct the 5 is easier than it seems. The 
point to be observed here is the proper balanc- 
ing of the lower portion of the figure with the up- 
per. Start by running in the bottom hair line, and 
do the center hair line next. The round body line 
is then connected with both. Then comes the ver- 
tical hair line, followed by the upper curved body 
line or tail. This is nearly like the tail of figure 2. 
The ball end of the bottom hair line is then drawn. 
It should extend far enough beyond the line of the 
upper vertical hair line to balance the figure well. 
Finish by putting in the short end strokes. Do not 
forget that the round body lines need fullness. 

6 For the 6 draw a circular guide line first, extend- 
ing just above and below the guide lines. Next 
run a vertical guide line through center. The inner 
curve for the upper part of the body line is then 
made. From a point of the center guide line draw 
the inner curve of the top hair line. From the same 
guide line draw the inner curves of the bottom 
and center hair lines, then connect these small 



curves by larger ones. The outer curve of the cen- 
ter hair line is next made and connected by a small 
curve with the outer circle. Add the ball to the top 
hair line. Finally draw in that part of the circular 
guide line which constitutes the outer construction 
line of the figure. 

7 The upper body line of 7 is almost identical 
with the tails of 2 and 5, except that it is more 
extended. After this has been drawn within the 
boundaries of a square, parallel diagonal guide 
lines, corresponding to the width of hair lines, are 
run from the right end of upper body line to a point 
within a short distance of the lower left corner of 
the square. The left curve of the lower body line 
is now drawn from the second lower guide line up- 
ward, meeting the first diagonal guide line flush. 
Next the right curve of the lower body line is made 
from the lower guide line upward, joining the sec- 
ond diagonal guide line just above the center of the 
square. The small curves connecting the upper 
ends of the diagonal guide lines with the upper 
body line are put in, and then those parts of the 
diagonals, which lie between the curves, redrawn. 
The vertical serif at the left upper corner, the bot- 
tom line, and the short ends, finish the figure. At- 
tention is called to the extra width of the lower body 
line and also to its peculiar position, which must ap- 
pear well poised to balance the upper portion of 
the figure. The extremes of the curves and points 
must project above the guide line. 

8 In the 8 we have the most difficult of the num- 
erals. Its construction is similar to that of the 
letter S. A vertical center line and two parallel 

49 



horizontal guide lines are drawn in the square as 
for S. The upper and lower outer curves are drawn 
first, extending just above and below the guide lines. 
The left outer curve on body line is next made to 
connect the upper line with the lower center guide 
line. The lower outer line is likewise connected 
on the right by a curve with the upper center line. 
This curve may touch the right side of the square, 
while the upper curve must recede from the left 
side of the square, to insure a smaller top than bot- 
tom portion of the figure. The inner curves of the 
top and bottom hair lines are next drawn. Then 
the inner curves of the body line, running from 
the center guide lines, and connecting with the inner 
line of the hair lines. The same radius is used for 
the opposite curve on inner line of the hair lines. 
The lower outer curve of the hair line is now ex- 
tended by shifting the point of compass center to 
the left. From the extended bottom curve a smaller 
curve is drawn at the lower left, connecting with the 
curved body line, near its junction with the lower 
center guide line. A small curve is likewise drawn 
connecting the top outer curve with a point at the 
intersection of the upper center guide line and the 
curved body line on the right. The result should 
show a substantial thickening of the lower hair line 
at the extreme left, and also of the upper one to the 
right, although the latter should be of lesser width. 

9 The construction of 9 is a repetition of that of 
6, as it represents that figure upside down, 
but with two distinct exceptions. First: the 
upper portion of 9 is shorter than the lower one of 
6 and the inner line can be done in one plain circle. 



Second: the lower end of 9 is more extended than 
the top of 6, because of the rule as applied in con- 
structing 3, 5 and 8, i. e., to always make the lower 
portions fuller than the upper. Therefore the ball 
end is extended and the ball itself enlarged. 

OThe o is identical with the letter O and drawn 
according to the same principles. 
&The construction of the abbreviation mark for 
" and," &, is explained here, since we have now 
learned about the figure 8. The & is practically an 
8 with its lower portion shifted slightly to the left 
and a small c attached to its lower right. Run in 
the lines as for figure 8, taking care to keep the 
lower portion well to the left. The bottom hook 
is then drawn and finally the ball end. See that this 
character is well balanced. The ball end should 
appear as the continuation of the lower hair line, 
and the bottom hook as that of the body line. 
P The interrogation mark is made, with a slight 
• deviation, according to the rules laid down for 
constructing the upper part of figure 2. The ball or 
period must be of a thickness equal to the width of 
the body lines. The latter principle also applies 
to the construction of the comma (,) and exclama- 
tion mark ( !). 

Ink work should not be attempted on letters and 
numerals until proficiency in the copying of their 
outlines, by pencil, has been acquired. Ink work 
in the mechanical construction of letters and num- 
erals is done on the following order: the small 
circles and curves are done first, the larger ones 
next, then the vertical and diagonal lines are run 
in, and the horizontals last. 



In no case is it permissible to copy a letter or fig- 
ure from the book, by the use of tracing paper. 
Nothing is gained by such practice. Your eye 
must be trained as well as your hand. Freehand 
sketching is the best means to that end. The con- 
struction of the letters and numerals on mechanical 
principles is done to show how near you can come 
to the true lines, and also to gain experience. 

GENERAL RULES FOR THE CONSTRUC- 
TION OF LETTERS 

The letters of the alphabet should appear as 
much as possible each to occupy the same amount 
of space. They should be made to appear so, to 
produce harmony. There are certain limitations to 
this, however. The letter M or the W, for in- 
stance, would not look well when squeezed into a 
space equal to that occupied by an I or a J, nor vice 
versa. It is the volume of the letter, in its relation 
to the white space between the letters, that counts. 

As a matter of fact hardly two letters of the 
whole alphabet can be made to fill exactly the same 
amount of space and look right. Study the charac- 
ters on plates 2, 3 and 4, "Mechanical construc- 
tion of letters and numerals" and note how they 
appear in their finished state, plates 5, 6 and 7, 
"Modern Roman." To make the proportions of 
black letters and white spaces as nearly alike as pos- 
sible is the idea underlying the principles for the 
construction of letters designed for legibility. To 
strive to even up space without addition to, or 
changing the individual lines of the characters, is 



50 



to help to make these letters easy to read when they 
are assembled in words and phrases. 

Next to W, A and M, the letters K and X oc- 
cupy the largest space. Still A appears no larger 
than B, which letter is, in fact, much smaller. The 
I and J fill the smallest spaces. 

The proportions of the Roman letters are based 
on the square or the circle. All round or circular 
letters, like O, S, C, &c., should be made to extend 
a little above and below the line, otherwise they 
would look too small. A striking example of this 
illusion is found in the letter R. If the hooked end 
of its curved tail is made on a line with the lower 
serif, it will appear too short. This is a mistake 
often seen. 

For the same reason the sharp points of the let- 
ters, A, V, N, &c., should be extended above or be- 
low the line. 

The utmost care is necessary to have all hair- and 
all body- or heavy lines of the letters of equal width. 

Accuracy of construction is the chief requirement 
for drawings of letters, and exactness can best be 
acquired when enforced at the beginning. When 
copying letters and numerals from the book take 
your dimensions deliberately and with care. 

The drawing tools and materials should be prop- 
erly employed, see Part I — "The Drawing Mater- 
ials," page 9. 

Hair lines are the light up-strokes, body lines or 
down-strokes are heavy lines, as in writing. The 
round body lines of letters like O, G, B, &c., should 
always be a little heavier in the middle portion than 
the straight body lines, lest they appear too thin. 



The width of the curved hair lines, at their narrow- 
est part, is equal to that of the straight hair lines. 
T^^^jr-T^ Such awkward mistakes as an in- 

y JE\. X verted Y or V or X are frequently 
met with. They are sometimes committed by 
eminent artists, proving that these masters do not 
give due consideration to so important a matter as 
lettering. 

Like the lines of a well constructed building, the 
letter should be lighter in its upper, and heavier in 
its lower portion, wherever it can be so constructed. 
Thus the middle hair lines of B, E and H are placed 
slightly above the center, and the lower brackets of 
E, L, and Z made somewhat fuller than the upper 
ones. B, C, E, G, K, R, S, X and Z are all wider 
at the bottom than on top, for the same reason. 

The above rules together with the principles of 
mechanical construction on page 31 are given to 
teach not only the construction of the Modern 
Roman letters, but all other styles of Roman letters 
as well. By applying these principles, with a few 
exceptions as to details, the Antique Roman, French 
Roman, Ornamental Roman, Block and Plain let- 
ters can be correctly made. The rules will also aid 
materially in the construction of the Roman Italic 
alphabet, or slanted Roman. 

All these styles are described under separate head- 
ings, and this article deals only with the method of 
construction of the letters. 

Antique Roman. In this alphabet (plate 11), the 
serifs vary from those of the Modern Roman letters 
in that the curves are extended by straight lines, mak- 



51 



Plate XI 
Antique Roman 



1 



I 



ABCDEFG 
HIJKLMN 
O P QR STU 
VWXYZ & 



ing them flat and thinner. The hair lines are also 
lighter, and the brackets and serifs of C, E, F, G, 
L, S, T and Z are slightly curved and slanted. The 
body lines of A, K, M, N, R, V and W show the 
peculiar pointed extension at the ends, characteris- 
tic of this style. There are several other minor devi- 
ations, which require no special description as to 
construction. The student who has acquired the 



plain letter is generally the hardest to make. In all 
other essentials the Ornamental Roman letters are 
made exactly like the Modern Roman. The ap- 
pearance of the letters can be varied by adding balls 
to the ends of the serifs. 

See "Ornamental Roman," page 92. 

The Block letters (plate 18) are practically Mod- 



faculty of correctly copying the Modern Roman ern Roman with all the lines of equal thickness, and 



letters, will have no trouble in reproducing the An 
tique Roman letters from Plate 11. See "Antique 
Roman," page 92. 

French Roman. In constructing the French 
Roman letters (plates 9 and 10), the complications 
are considerably lessened after you have acquired 
the mastery of the letters of the two former alpha- 
bets. The manipulation is very similar to that of 
shaping the Antique Roman. In fact, the pointed 
serifs and ends of the French Roman letters require 
a good deal less work. Being extremely graceful, 
these letters demand delicate handling. To repro- 
duce them correctly is a matter of great accuracy, 
as the slightest deviation from the clean, sharp line 
or perfect curve would, of course, prove fatal. 

See " French Roman," page 8.9. 

Ornamental Roman. To construct the curved 
serifs of the Ornamental Roman letters (plate 12), 
is a simple matter and requires less accuracy of exe-. 
cution than the straight end strokes of the Modern 
Roman, in that slight deviations are not at once ap- 
parent. Even when fairly well done, the effect is 
highly ornamental. This goes to prove that a few 
ornaments can hide a number of defects, and that a 



therefore much easier to make than the latter style. 
The principal thing to observe, in its construction, 
is to get all parts -of the letter of even width. Square 
guide lines are drawn for the construction of Block, 
as for Modern Roman letters, but the upper and 
lower inter-guide lines are placed as far from the 
outer ones as the width of the body lines. When 
drawing the Block letter run all inner lines parallel 
with the outer ones, as in the drawing of the body 
lines for Modern Roman. On account of the heavy 
serifs, the cross bar of A is placed somewhat higher 
than in Modern Roman. The serifs of K, X and Y 
are perplexing, because of the great slant of the diag- 
onals. This difficulty may be avoided or lessened 
by decreasing the widths of the lines of all letters. 
The block serifs should be nicely squared and care 
taken not to have them too long. 

The principles of construction laid down for the 
Modern Roman letters, may be applied in a slightly 
modified manner. See "Block" letters, page 96. 

Square Block. A style of Block letter, con- 
structed entirely of straight lines, except the round 
corners, is made similar to the Square Plain letters, 
plate 16. 



54 



Ornamental Block, (plate 19) Is a Block letter 
with curved serifs, as in Ornamental Roman. For 
principles of construction see "Block," above. 
The drawing of the serifs needs no special direc- 
tions. 

See "Ornamental Block" page 97. 

The Plain or Condensed, Round. These letters, 
(plate 15) are designed to meet the requirements of 
convenience and economy. 

They can be made, according to squareness or cir- 
cularity, on the principles of the Modern Roman. 
That means that letters like B, D, H, &c., may be 
made approximately as wide as a square, and round 
letters like C, O, S, &c., to just fill a circle. A, K, 
M, V, W, X and Y should then be made wider, of 
course, as in the Modern Roman, but the letters E, 
F, L and U are exceptions, and should be nar- 
rower. See " Architects Single Stroke Alphabets," 
plate 20, Alphabet i. 

As the Plain letters are intended for a smaller 
space, however, they are generally narrowed down 
to four-fifths of their height, and can be made still 
narrower. A glance at plates 15 and 16 will show 
that the widths of letters B, C, D, H, J, N, P, R, S, 
T and Z are normal, as above, E, F, L and U nar- 
rower, and A, G, K, M, O, Q, V, W, X and Y wider 
than four-fifths of their height. Draw guide lines 
as for Block letters. 

Do not make the Plain letters too heavy. 

Plain, Square. A variation of the Plain letter is 
made square, with straight lines and round corners. 
(Plate 16). All round letters are done in straight 
lines also, making their construction very simple. 



Another variation has no curves at all, the cor- 
ners being slanted off with straight lines. This style 
is much used in wagon lettering. See also article 
on " Plain" letters, page 93. 

Plain, Spurred. (Plate 17). Although but a 
Plain letter with pointed serifs or spurs added, this 
style can be made to appear decidedly different 
from the former. 

The letters are constructed on the principles of 
the Plain or Condensed letters, as above, with the 
exception of A, M, N, V and W, whose body lines 
are brought together to a sharp point, as in the 
French Roman. Another deviation are the slanted 
serifs of letters C, E, F, G, J, L, S, T and Z, neces- 
sitating contraction of the curved parallel lines at 
the ends, in order to make the connection for the 
point. 

The spurs should be made sharp and short, and 
all be of equal proportion. 

Roman Italics, (plate 14). After the construc- 
tion of the Modern Roman letters has been mas- 
tered the Roman Italics offer no difficulties to the 
student. Instead of dividing' the drawing paper 
into squares composed of horizontal and vertical 
guide lines, as for Modern Roman, the guide lines 
are run in diagonally, giving them the slant re- 
quired by the Roman Italics. They should be 
placed at an angle of about thirty degrees, so as to 
form diagonal parallelograms of a width of three 
quarters their height. 

The curves of the letters of this alphabet may be 
drawn freehand, using the writing pen, and only 



55 



I 



Plate XII 
Ornamental Roman 



ABCDEFG 
HIJKLMN 

OPQRSTU 

VWXYZ & 



the straight lines made with the ruling pen, guided 
by the T-square and triangle edge. 

Mechanical construction of the curves can be re- 
sorted to in extreme cases, if the letters are very 
large, but this style of lettering never looks well ex- 
cept when done with a light and graceful swing, 
and by using the instruments for their construction 
they are liable to become stiff and awkward in ap- 
pearance. For these reasons it is not advisable for 
the student to attempt the reproduction of the 
Roman Italics until a certain manual skill and con- 
fidence has been acquired, which cannot fail to re- 
sult after all the previous alphabets are mastered. 

The Romaa Italics should be studied and prac- 
tised in lead pencil first. The method of construc- 
tion is as follows: 

After sketching in the letters with pencil, the 
straight down strokes or body lines are drawn along 
the T-square and triangle edge. Then, with a pen- 
cil or the writing pen the curves are drawn, observ- 
ing that all hair lines and all body lines are of even 
widths. 

A The lines for the body line of A are drawn 
as above, then the hair line from the top 
down, with a gentle, easy swing, ending with the 
small ball. This flourish may be extended according 
to fancy. The cross bar and bottom line of the serif 
are drawn with the T-square guide and the curves 
of the serif finished freehand. 

BThe diagonal body line of B is made with the 
triangle and the upper hair line started from 
the top, with a swing to the left and a slight thick- 
ening near the end. Begin again at the same point 



58 



of the top hair line, turning to the right and con- 
tinuing with the curved outer body line to the center 
and thence again outward and down to the lower 
guide line. Then the inner curves are made. The 
lower harizontal hair line is drawn along T-square 
edge and the curves of the serifs done as above. 

CC is begun at the top, and the outer curve 
made with one clean sweep of the pen or pen- 
cil. The lower end is slightly accentuated by a back 
stroke. Beginning again at the upper hair line and 
going towards the right, the curve is finished with 
the serif. The inner curve is finally drawn from the 
top down. 

The manipulation for D is similar to 
that of B. E and F are drawn with 
triangle and the T-square except that 
the serifs can be done freehand. G is 
made like C first and then the lower bracket or body 
line is drawn with the triangle and T-square, and the 
serifs drawn as before. 

Remember the rule concerning the thickness of 
round body lines, as given in " Mechanical construc- 
tion of letters and numerals," page 31. 

HT H and I are done with the help of the tri- 
A angle and T-square, as above. 
J The diagonals for J are made with the tri- 
angle and the lower curve put in, from left 
to right, and finished with the ball. Then the top 
serif is done. 

KThe first body line for K is drawn as b&fore 
and then the hair line, beginning at the top. 
The ball end is next finished and the lower body line 
done along the triangle edge. Then make the serifs. 



D E 
F G 



LThe L is drawn by the use of the triangle 
and T-square, except the bracket and serifs, 
which may be done freehand. 

MX/T The hair lines of M and N are done 
•L^ freehand and the ball is finished simi- 
lar to the first line of A. The ends may also be ex- 
tended. The other parts of the letters are drawn 
with the triangle and T-square guide, and then the 
curves of the serifs made. 

OThe O is done by starting at the top and 
sweeping toward the left and down and 
around to the right, then starting at the top again 
and moving toward the right and down, uniting with 
the first stroke. The inner curves are then run in, 
from the top downward. 

When working with ink, the C, O, Q and S, also 
all numerals except the i and 4, can be made entirely 
with the writing pen. 

P/^ P and Q are made similar to B and O. 
\f R is a repetition of I^, and then the 
R lower body line or tail is drawn by starting 
'the outer curve at the center and running 
it down below the line. The inner curve is then 
made from the center down, in one stroke, to the 
end. A fine, graceful swing of this curve must be 
produced, and the extent of the flourish is optional. 

SS requires thoughtful study and prolonged 
practice, as in Modern Roman. Start it with 
the upper curve, from left to right. Then draw the 
lower curve, from left to right and upward. Start 
again at the point of beginning of the upper curve, 
running downward and then to the right and down 
again in one sweep to the lower curve, thus describ- 



ing the lower line of the body line. Begin once more 
from the top, for the upper line of the body line, and 
unite with the lower curve. The curves of the body 
line must not appear too fiat. The letter is finished 
by putting in the serifs. 

TThe body line of T is made and the brackets 
and serifs done as with previous letters. The 
brackets must be as nearly alike as possible, and 
the one on the right must not appear too heavy. 

UU is made with an upward swing of its hair 
line, similar to the first hair line of A, but 
running in an opposite direction. Make the body 
line first, from the top down, and then the hair line, 
also beginning at the top and uniting with body line 
below. - 

VW/" V and W are done similar to other 
▼ V letters as described above. The cor- 
rect slant of these two letters is of importance. 

XY" X and Y are also difficult as to getting 
JL the slant to appear in line with the 
other letters. 

The hair lines of all these letters are capped with 
a ball, as before. 

ZThe diagonal body line of Z having an extra 
slant, great care is necessary to balance the 
letter well, as against the slant of the other letters. 

For the numerals a free interpretation of the con- 
struction of the Modern Roman numerals, by meth- 
ods as above, will be found sufficient direction. 

Sign painters and decorators can make use of this 
method of lettering by substituting the brush stroke 
for the pen stroke. 



59 



Plate XIII 
Century Roman 
Modern Type 

(American Type Founders Co.) 



ABCDEFGHIJK 

LMNOPQRSTU 

VWXYZ$&abcde 

f ghij klmnopqrstu 
vwxyz!?, 123456 



See also article on "Roman Italics," page 93,- and 
"Architects' Single Stroke Alphabets," page 112. 

For lower case Italics see " The Lower Case Let- 
ters," page 74. 

Modern Gothic, (Old English) plate 23, shows 
the Modern Gothic types, and also the correct let- 
ter shapes, drawn for comparison. 

Although built upon a foundation, entirely for- 
eign, and representing another school, the lines of the 
Roman characters can unmistakably be traced in the 
Modern Gothic letters. For this reason the previous 
study of the Roman alphabets has a beneficial in- 
fluence upon the student, seeking to master these ap- 
parently complicated characters. 

Many and varied are the exterior decorative 
flourished ends and scrolls, devised for Modern 
Gothic, and the styles used are often badly mixed. 
The Gothic alphabet shown in instruction books 
presents many letter forms of different characteristic 
treatment. 

All letters are composed of straight or curved 
parts. These parts or features recur in most letters 
of a family, and they should always be made uni- 
form in appearance. To present these features cor- 
rectly and without variation, is to make the letters 
plain to read and easy of construction. 

In studying the individual letter forms of Modern 
Gothic, it will be noticed that many parts are merely 
added as ornamental. A, for instance, would still 
be plain A, without the second hooked flourish or 
dash attached to the upper part of the hair line, and 
even without the first. Likewise the top dash of B, 



62 



F, H, K, L, P, R, W and Y is unnecessary, but adds 
to the ornamental expression of the letters. The 
second of the double first body strokes in B, F, H, I, 
K, L, R and S might also be dispensed with, and 
the remaining component parts would still consti- 
tute a letter. But inasmuch as the Modern Gothic 
letters, as also the Uncial capitals, are designed and 
used chiefly for ornamental lettering, all parts serv- 
ing as an adornment are indispensable. 

First of all we will apply the principle of square- 
ness and circularity. C, E, G, O, Q, S and T are 
round letters, the others may be classified as about 
filling a square. 

Divide the drawing paper into equal squares, as 
for Modern Roman, and add a horizontal center line, 
but no further guide lines are required. The out- 
lines of the letters are drawn in pencil and practised 
until all letter forms have been mastered. All hair 
lines are very fine and sharp, and the body lines all 
of uniform thickness. 

The structural lines of A are sketched into a 
square, care being taken not to spread the letter too 
much, and allowing space for the lower flourished 
hair line. The diagonals are drawn similar to those 
of the Modern. Roman letter, then the lower curved 
tail is added, and the two upper dashes. The center 
cross line is finally put in. 

The outlines of B are sketched by first copying 
the second vertical body line, then connecting it with 
the upper curved and lower vertical body lines, fol- 
lowed by the lower tail or dash, similar to that of A, 
but elongated, thus forming the frame of B. The 
first vertical or sub-body line with its short dash and 



the upper scroll are then drawn. Note that the two 
first vertical body lines run parallel to each other. 
The ornamental central hair lines are drawn last. 
The upper dash or scroll recurs in many other let- 
ters, and should invariably be shaped alike. Also 
the vertical twin body line, wherever it occurs, is al- 
ways the same. The lower flourish or tail, present 
in most letters, should be of the same radius in every 
instance, though varying in length. 

The first body line of C is semi-circular. This 
line is repeated in E and T, and in a modified way, 
in G, O and Q also. The vertical body line, akin 
to the second one of B, is entirely straight. The size 
of the short upper dash must be restricted, to balance 
the lower extremity of the semi-circular body line. 
This small dash is again shown in many of the fol- 
lowing letters. A lower semi-circular hair line is 
added below the line to balance the flourish of the 
other letters. 

The top dash is continued in D, and combined 
with its second vertical body line. 

E is a C with a short center dash added, which 
must be placed slightly above the center line. 

F also presents a repetition of the features of 
former letters. The exterior ornamental hair line 
may be run below the line. The short central cross 
line is placed opposite the dash of the first vertical 
body line, giving it the appearance of a continuance 
of the same. 

G is made similar to C, but its upper dash is con- 
nected by a diagonal hair line, and the first curved 
body line narrows down to a hair line in its lower 
portion, and connects with another semi-circular 



63 



body line. The end of this line is connected with 
the diagonal hair line above the center line. 

H is a repetition of parts of former letters, except 
the third vertical body line, which is started at about 
the center and carried, in a curve, below the lower 
line. 

I shows the features of former letters, but its lower 
dash is placed farther toward the left. 

The letter form for J being absent in the Gothic 
alphabet, the I is generally used in its stead. 

K is like H, but a new feature is introduced in 
place of the third vertical body line. This short, 
curved body line is started from a diagonal hair line, 
placed slightly above the point of that of H, and is 
connected near its lower end with another, but nearly 
rigid body line, similar to the lower part of the 
diagonal body line of A. The letter R shows a simi- 
lar feature. 

L shows parts of former letters, but the lower 
scroll, to give expression, is somewhat elongated and 
shifted toward the right. 

M, for reasons of harmony, has only a single first 
body line. The second and third vertical body lines 
are new features. The former is nearly straight, and 
the latter, started with a slight curve at the end of 
the familiar upper dash, is carried down, with an- 
other short turn, to the lower line. Nearly all these 
features are present in W. N presents parts of M. 
Features of G are employed for O, and the third 
body line is started with a heavy, curved stroke, from 
the top down, uniting with the first. 

The new feature shown in P is the extended first 
body stroke, which is brought down to the extreme 



Plate XIV 
Roman Italics 



^SCDEFGIfl 




STf/VWXYZ & 



f? 




9 • • 



line of the lower scroll. The second vertical body- 
line is connected with the lower dash, as in D. 

Q is O with an additional lower dash. This is 
connected with the middle vertical body line and the 
ornamental lower curved hair line is omitted. 

R is a repetition of parts of the principles of B, 
but the fourth straight body line is run downward, 
similar to the one of K, and not connected at the 
lower end. 

S requires special study. The twin curved center 
body lines, resembling the curvature of the body line 
of the Roman S, must run parallel with each other. 
A good plan is to draw the two lines as one heavy 
one, and then separate them by drawing lines through 
the center. Note particularly, that the upper por- 
tion of the letter is smaller than the lower. The 
position of the diagonal hair line and its connection 
with the lower scroll must be carefully studied and 
persistently practised. 

T is C with its upper dash extended toward the 
left and curved downward. 

U shows no new features other than the position 
of the parts, and the squaring of the second vertical 
body line, resembling the middle body line of M. 

V and W both present features from D and M. 
X shows singular treatment. The diagonal body 

line should be gracefully curved, to prevent a too 
rigid and stiff appearance. The position of the 
diagonal hair line, and the points of connection with 
the upper and lower dashes, must be carefully ob- 
served. 

Y represents parts of V. The first vertical body 
stroke, however, is brought down to the line, with 

66 



a short turn to the right, similar to that of the 
middle body line of M, but without corners. The 
second vertical body line is curved toward the left, 
near the lower line, and continued in a hair 
line, connecting with the first body line, and carried 
toward the left and downward, thickening into a 
heavy, curved stroke, turning again to the right, and 
downward again, finally narrowing into a hair line. 

Z is a combination of parts of B and D. 

See also "Modern Gothic," page 97. 

German Gothic. (Plate 22.) The letters may be 
considered somewhat wider than a square, but the 
guide lines for their construction should be laid out 
in squares. The inter-guide lines are placed as far 
from the outer ones as the width of body lines. 

The letters are sketched within the squares, the 
vertical body line of A, I, J, N and U leaning against 
the right side of the square. The second or double 
curved body lines of B and R, and the right ex- 
tremes of body lines of S, X and Z may also be 
placed against the inner right line of square. The 
first vertical body line of H, K, L, P, V, W and Y 
are drawn against the left side of the square. The 
central vertical body line of C, D, E, F, G, M, O, 
Q, T and W should occupy a position in the center 
of a square. 

The first scrolled body line of A is similar to that 
of B, R, N, U, W and M, although more condensed 
in the last named letters, and, more elongated, the 
same feature is present in D. The lower or basic body 
line of A recurs, in various lengths, in nearly all the 
other letters. The vertical body line of A is repre- 
sented again in U. The central vertical line of C 



is shown also in D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, O, P, Q 
and T. C, E and T are similar in construction, and 
G, O and Q nearly so, as with the Modern Gothic. 
The scrolled bar on the upper left of F, or the plain 
one of P may be added to the letters H, K and L 
also. The feature of the top bar, connected with 
the right curved body line of G, recurs in Z. The 
positions of the upper and lower curved body lines 
of K and R are similar, as are the parts that consti- 
tute the letters M and N, and those of V, W and Y. 

All diagonal hair lines should, as nearly as pos- 
sible, run parallel. The scrolled hair line ornaments 
must be carefully sketched out. 

See also " German Gothic," page loo. 

Modern Uncials (plate 24). The construction of 
the Modern Uncials is a very complicated matter. 
Of the rules governing the proportions of the Roman 
letters, only the principle of squareness or circular- 
ity can be applied. 

There are, however, certain pronounced features, 
which recur in most of the letters. The place of the 
vertical rigid body lines of the Roman letters is 
taken by gracefully curved lines, tapering to a slen- 
der stem in the middle portion. The semi-circular 
body lines show the characteristic Gothic pointed 
arch. 

Draw guide lines as for Modern Roman letters. 

Those of the letter forms, presenting the lines of 
the Roman capitals most unmistakably, as B, D, F, 
G, I, L, O, P, Q, R, S and Z, may be constructed on 
principles similar to the Modern Roman letters, but 
the absence of vertical lines makes their application 
difficult. The tapered uprights, shown in most let- 



67 



ters, are all of the same proportions. Of like di- 
mensions are also all semi-circular body lines, as in 
C, D, E, G, M, O, Q, T, U and W. The compara- 
tive thickness of hair lines and body lines is the same 
as in the Modern Roman. The construction of the 
peculiar ornamental appendages of characters like 
A, C, E, H, etc., should be studied from the plate. 
Their proportions are arrived at by comparison. 
The brackets, crowning A, H and K, may be con- 
structed alike. The one of A extends from right to 
left, those of the others from left to right. The 
brackets of L and F are of similar curvature, but 
those of Z present rigid lines. The treatment of the 
hair lines and serifs of C and E is almost identical. 
The position of the second, or semi-circular body 
line of H must be carefully determined. It may be 
compared with the second body line of the bracket 
of G. The middle hair line of K is started like that 
of H, but makes a short turn to allow for the second 
straight body line. M is made under a repetition 
of previous principles. This letter form, turned up- 
side down, represents W. N and U resemble lower 
case letters. The second bo'dy line of N, as that of V 
and Y, are of peculiar treatment. The dash or tail of 
R, like the first stroke of A, shows special embel- 
lishment, but it may be made plain, and the down- 
ward flourish of A can be restricted to the lower line 
by constructing it similar to the last body line of N, 
reversed. S is in pronounced Roman lines, but the T 
shows the Gothic character. Compare the second 
body line or bracket with those of G and H. The 
upper straight bar is of odd appearance but simple 
construction. V and Y are of kindred shape, and X 



Plate XV 
Plain, Round 



11 



ABCDEFG 
HIJKLMN 

OPQRSTU 
VWXYZa 



Plate XVI 
Plain, Square 



ABCDEFD 
HIJKLMN 

DPQRSTU 
VWXY 





Plate XVII 
Plain, Spurred 



ABCDEFG 
HIJKLMN 
OPQRSTU 

VWXYZ a 



and Z differ but slightly from their Roman cousins. 
The ball serifs are similar in all letters. See also 
"The Modern Uncials," page loi. 

The Lower Case Letters. (See also article on 
"The Lower Case Letters," page 97.) All lower 
case letters are constructed according to the rules 
laid down for that of the corresponding capitals. 

Modern Roman Lower Case. (Plate 25.) Like 
those of the capitals, the dimensions of the small 
Modern Roman letters are based upon the square or 
circle. The thickness of body- and hair-lines is 
made a trifle less than that of the capitals. Serifs 
and other details are proportioned likewise, and it 
is necessary to study the construction of the capital 
letters of a certain alphabet first, before attempting 
to draw the lower case letters, because the rules for 
constructing the former may be generally applied to 
the construction of the latter. 

In laying out lower case lettering, special space 
allowance must be made between lines, to give room 
for the letters, g, j, p, q and y, extending below the 
line. 

The guide lines for all Roman lower case letters 
are drawn as for the capitals, but additional middle- 
and sub-guide lines are required for the lower case 
letters and the squares are proportionately smaller. 
(See "Guide Lines," plate i.) 

Letter a is sketched within a square, under rules 
similar to those given for the capitals. (See "Me- 
chanical construction of letters and numerals," page 
31.) All letters are drawn freehand, and finished 
with the aid of the instruments. The vertical lines 



are drawn first, then the curves, and the horizontal 
lines last. 

The a is finished with the top ball and the lower 
serif, extending outside of square. 

Fill all squares of the first row with copies of the 
letter a, leaving an intervening space between the 
sub-guide line and the top guide line of the next 
row, into the squares of which the letter b is repro- 
duced, and so on to z. 

Always look for information as to construction 
rules under the heading " Mechanical construction 
of letters and numerals," page 31. 

The b is started with the vertical lines, and the 
curves are added. The serifs are put in last, extend- 
ing outside the square. 

The c is drawn wholly within a square and fin- 
ished with the top ball. Note that the end of the 
lower hair line is slightly thickened. 

The d is manipulated like b. 

The e may be constructed like c, but it is wider 
than the former. 

With f care must be taken not to make the curved 
top as wide as the other letters. 

The g is a very difficult letter. The top oval is 
drawn first, then a larger oval below, and the double- 
curved lower body line constructed similar to the 
body line of S. (See under "Mechanical construc- 
tion of letters and numerals," page 31.) 

The construction of the other Modern Roman 
lower case letters requires no special directions 
other than those given for previous letters. The 
proportions of m and n, however, should be studied 
well. Do not leave the spaces between the three 



74 



body lines of m as wide as that between the two body 
lines of n. The proportions of v and w should like- 
wise be observed, 

French Roman Lower Case Letters. (Plate 26.) 
This style of lettering looks especially well, when 
the end-stroke of letters h, k, m, n, &c., is drawn out 
with a graceful swing, extending below the line, 
when it occurs at the end of a word. Experience, 
however, is necessary to accomplish this successfully. 
When used in composition for inscriptions the let- 
ters must not appear cramped. Sharp serifs and 
graceful lines are the prominent features of this 
style. 

The French Roman lower case letters are con- 
structed on similar principles to the Modern Roman 
small letters. Hair- and body-lines must always be 
of uniform widths. It will be noticed that this is 
the only Roman alphabet whose lower case letters 
have serifs instead of balls, as in a, c, f, j, &c. 

Antique Roman Lower Case Letters. (Plate 26.) 
The length of the upper stems of b, d, f, &c., should 
be greater than that of similar letters of the other 
alphabets, because the slanted serifs cause them to 
appear shorter than they are. In other respects these 
letters may be constructed under rules similar to 
those given for the Modern Roman lower case let- 
ters. See also "Antique Roman" capitals, page 51. 

Ornamental Roman Lower Case. (Plate 29.) 
The principles laid down for the construction of the 
Modern Roman lower case letters can be applied 
to that of these letters also. The curved serifs are 
added, as with the capitals. (See "Ornamental Ro- 
man," page 54.) No other directions are required. 



Plain, Round, Lower Case. (Plate 27.) The con- 
struction of these small letters is subject to the same 
restrictions as given for that of, the capitals. Care 
must be taken not to make the letters too heavy. 
They appear more graceful when thin. The guide 
lines for all Plain and Block lower case letters are 
drawn similar to those used for the Roman lower 
case letters, but the upper and lower inter-guide 
lines, as well as those of the upper and lower sub- 
guide lines are placed as far from the outer ones 
as the width of the body lines. 

Plain, Square, Lower Case. ( Plate 27.) Similar 
rules obtain for their construction, the proportions 
being the same. Like their capitals, these small let- 
ters can be made entirely by the use of the instru- 
ments. 

Plain, Spurred, Lower Case. (Plate 27.) The 
tendency to make the spurs too long and fiat should 
be guarded against. In all other essentials the 
Spurred small letters are made like the Plain, Round, 
lower case. See also the capitals under " Plain, 
Spurred," of this part. 

Block and Ornamental Block, Lower Case. ( Plate 
28.) The construction of both require no special 
description, since it would be but a repetition of the 
methods employed in the reproduction of the capi- 
tals and other lower case letters above described. 

Roman Italics, Lower Case. (Plate 25.) The 
construction of single stroke lower case italics is 
a matter of confidence derived from experience and 
supplemented by ability in penmanship. The letters 
should be executed in an even running hand and 
they look best when small and set closely. When so 



75 



Plate XVIII 
Block 



ABCDEFG 
HIJKLMN 
OPQRSTU 

VWXYZ a 



Plate XIX 
Ornamental Block 



I 



ABCDEFG 
HIJKILMN 
OPQRSTU 

VWXYZ a 



made, this style of lettering is plainer and reads more 
easily than the plainest writing. 

When large lettering is desired, the lower case 
Italics may be executed by drawing double body 
lines, similar to those of the capitals, as given under 
*' Roman Italics," page 55. The method described 
hereafter is for smaller letters. 

For larger lettering the lower case letters should 
be sketched in, aided by diagonal guide lines, as 
described for the construction of the capitals, ex- 
cept that a middle- and sub-guide line is added. 

The small Roman Italics are well adapted for the 
use of architects, and may be employed in conjunc- 
tion with the special Architects' Single Stroke al- 
phabets described in another part. 

The single stroke lower case Italics are not prac- 
tised with the pencil, as they represent a style of pen 
stroke letters. All lettering is sketched in with the 
pencil first, to insure correct spacing. The result to 
be aimed at, and which can only be acquired by ex- 
perience, is an even slant and thickness of all letters. 

The a is started by the down stroke from the top 
toward the left and down, and continued upward 
again, as in writing. Begin at the starting point on 
top again and run a hair line toward the right and 
down, meeting the first hair line, as in ; then begin 
again at the top, for the straight, heavy body line, 
running it down and continuing it up again with the 
short end hair line, which may be slightly empha- 
sized by a light back stroke at the end. 

All hair lines may thus be thickened at the ends, 
both at the top and bottom. 

Start the end of the hair line of b at the top, run- 



80 



ning it downward. Then, again starting at the same 
point, run in the straight body line, continuing it 
around to the right and up. Beginning again at the 
right of the lower part of the body line, move up- 
ward and curve to the right and down again, meeting 
the former hair line. 

Start c with the top hair line, running towards 
the left and continuing downward and up again, and 
with a slight back stroke at the end, then put in the 
top ball with a short down stroke. 

The d is constructed like a and b, and e as c, fol- 
lowed by a slightly thickened center hair line, from 
the top downward and to the left. 

Starting from the top, run f down with a grace- 
ful sweep and end with a ball or period, then finish 
with the top ball and the short cross hair line. 

Make g like a, continuing the straight body stroke 
down and around towards the left, and upward 
again, finishing with the ball. 

Start h like b, and finish as with d, also i and j as 
with previous letters. 

Make first stroke of k as for h, then, starting a 
diagonal hair line at the top and running downward 
towards the left, unite with the body line. Start a 
short body line from the center of the hair line, run- 
ning it down and finishing as for h. Finally put in 
the ball at the upper right. 

Construct 1, m and n as in former letters. 

Begin as for the first stroke of a. Then, begin- 
ning again at starting point, run toward the right 
and downward, uniting with the lower hair line. 

Draw p, q and r as previous letters. 

Start s with the top hair line, as for c, then curve 



toward the right and downward. Starting again 
with the lower ball, run down and toward the right, 
uniting with the curved body line, and finishing with 
the top ball. 

Make t and u as in former letters. 

The first stroke of v is as in u, the upper hair line 
running upward and to the right, with a generous 
thickening, thence downward and uniting with the 
first stroke. The w is the same as before. 

Start X as for i, but run the body line down nearly 
vertical. Then start hair line with the top ball, run- 
ing it down through the body line, toward the left, 
and finishing with the lower ball; make y as in 
former letters, and z starting with the top curved 
body line from left to right, follow with the diagonal 
hair line running downward, then the lower tail, and 
finishing with the short center dash. 

Modern Gothic Lower Case. (Plate 29.) This 
may be used together with either the Modern Gothic 
capitals or Uncial Initials. The proportions of these 
letters may be compared with those of the Plain, 
Spurred, lower case letters. The small Modern 
Gothic letters are composed almost entirely of 
straight lines. 

Draw guide lines as for the Plain lower case let- 
ters. 

Great accuracy is essential for the correct render- 
ing of these letters. The body lines must all be of 
even thickness, and the hair lines sharp and fine. All 
pointed corners should be made very sharp, and the 
slanting lines, where they recur in similar letters, be 
parallel to each other. 



81 



Do not make the body lines too heavy. Narrow 
lines give these letters a more refined appearance. 

The short upper dashes of c, f and s, and the long 
lower ones of g and p as well as the lower scroll of 
y, must all be made to correspond with those of the 
Modern Gothic capitals. 

The lower case Gothic letters show two forms 
of the letter s. The long s is used within a word 
only, and never at the end, while the small or round 
s can be employed in either place. 

The peculiar construction of the hair lines of a 
must be carefully studied and practised. The scrolls 
on the ends of the stems of b, h, j, k, 1, p, q and t 
are for ornamental expression. They may be omitted 
and the letters finished by a slanted line. 

Modern Gothic lower case letters look well when 
set closely. 

German Gothic Lower Case. (Plate 29.) These 
letters, designed especially to be used with the Ger- 
man Gothic capitals (plate 22) will also give a har- 
monious effect when combined with the Modern 
Uncials or Church Text. (Plate 24.) 

Being composed almost wholly of straight lines, 
their construction is very simple, and, after the prin- 
ciples of the Modern Gothic lower case letters have 
been studied, these letters can be produced forth- 
with. 

Guide lines are drawn as for the small Modern 
Gothic letters. 

Great accuracy of proportion and execution is re- 
quired to correctly reproduce these letters. All di- 
agonal lines run perfectly parallel throughout the 
alphabet. The hair lines are heavier than those of 



Plate XX 
Architects' Single Stroke Alphabets 




BCDEFG 



^^ 







\ 










abcdetgnjjK mnopqrsiuvwxyz 

/2345 VWXYZa 





obcdefgh/jk/mnopgrstuv^xyz 




K^ 



A 




"V V V V V K V 



A A 



kK^ 



A 




K^ 




A V A A 




A 




RSTUVWXYZa 

abcdeffihiiklmnopqrstuvwxyz 



the Modern Gothic lower case letters. Observe that 
the long s is never used at the end of a word. 

In arranging letters of this style, they should 
be placed close to each other. See example on 
plate 35. 

Modern Script. (Plate 21.) Script, when used 
for purposes of lettering, is handled in a different 
manner than in writing. Good penmanship does not 
at all insure the ability to construct good Script let- 
tering, and again: a student with a poor handwriting 
may soon acquire a marvelous proficiency for letter- 
ing Script. 

Begin by practising large Script letters on brown 
paper. Lay out one letter at a time, with long, firm 
strokes and whole-arm movement. Use only your 
eyes and hand as guides. Improve on the lines 
drawn, and correct the less graceful ones. Always 
try for perfect ovals. 

Being generally constructed on an enlarged scale, 
the lines should invariably be started at the top and 
run downward with a determined sweep. All up- 
strokes are likewise made from the top down. Care- 
ful sketching in lead pencil makes the final execu- 
tion of this difficult work one of pleasure. The 
pencil lines must be examined critically, and all 
ovals, especially, made as smooth as possible, before 
inking in. Large Script lettering may be executed 
in ink with a fine, long-haired brush. 

The sign painter should practice Script lettering 
on a board, with a stick of chalk or charcoal. The 
letters are drawn out large, with a free-arm motion, 
and in rapid, clean, long swings. Standing off a few 



paces, the effect may then be studied. Confidence 
will thus be assured, eventually, by persistent prac- 
tise. The lower case letters are practised in a simi- 
lar manner. 

The main difficulty in lettering a line of Script 
is to give an even slant to all the letters. Experience, 
gathered from conscientious practice, will eventually 
overcome this also. 

Clean, fine and even lines are essential to bring 
out the beauty of Script lettering. 

When Script is to be introduced among lines of 
other types of letters, much space is required to give 
it a good appearance. Leave a generous margin 
above and below your line of Script. 

Freedom of treatment. Lettering should never 
appear harsh and stiff. Correctly constructed, it 
may still lack a certain dash and finish. This point 
of perfection is reached only after the technique 
has been acquired. Then an artistic abandon- 
ment of the stringent rules of mathematical draw- 
ing, a gradual breaking away from the strict meth- 
ods of the school, occurs of itself. 

It is at this stage of the development of his ability, 
that the artist is most liable to run to extremes. Here 
the student should be cautioned to keep before his 
mind's eye the classic originals of the letters, and, 
while developing a freedom of treatment, to pre- 
serve that quality in the shape of his letters, which 
will ever appeal to the refined taste of competent 
judges. 

Letters have varying expressions, somewhat as 
human faces have. You must try to make them pre- 



sent a pleasing countenance. Crooked letters are de- 
fective in expression; they sometimes appear ludi- 
crous. 

Occasionally letters also appear to dance, stand- 
ing, seemingly, on one leg and raising the other. 



This happens when they were not correctly drawn. 
When properly constructed, they stand still, and 
look as you intended that they should. 

Letters have speech. See that they speak a digni- 
fied language; do not permit them to shout. 



PART III— THE ALPHABETS 

Practical and Artistic — Their History, Description and Proper Use 

The Roman Alphabets 



No little confusion is created by various books on 
lettering offering so many different names for let- 
ters of practically identical alphabets, merely slightly 
modified or changed. These are labeled for en- 
lightenment: "IX century," or "From a tomb in 
the church." Moreover, nearly every " author- 
ity " has his own style of lettering nowadays, and 
new names are applied to old styles. Take the Plain 
or Condensed letter for instance. (Plate 15.) This 
style is called in some books of alphabets " Egyp- 
tian " ; by other instructors " Gothic." The same let- 
ter parades under several other aliases. Now the 
name " Egyptian " would suggest the ancient hiero- 
glyphs, but there is nothing in the construction of 
this letter which in any way relates to the symbolic 
characters of that sacred figure script. " Gothic " is 
a style of letter, showing the characteristic, sharp- 
cornered forms of the Pointed and many-gabled 
Gothic architecture. (Plate 23.) 

Our " Plain " letter is nothing but a condensed 



85 



form of the Roman alphabet. All the letters used in 
the civilized world to-day have emanated from the 
Roman capitals, even the Gothic characters being 
traceable, however remotely some of them may re- 
semble their original shapes, to the same source. 
This fact the student of lettering should not lose 
sight of. The many queer and corrupted styles of 
an intervening period, when wars devastated the 
countries of Europe, and arts and sciences were lost 
or neglected, have no value as examples for learners, 
bent on cultivating an acquaintance with good letter 
forms. On the contrary, these faulty letter shapes 
are most harmful to study from, and should not be 
placed in books of instruction. 

Out of the chaos of some hundred conflicting styles 
of Roman alphabets — so-called, the Classic Roman 
capitals stand out prominently and beautifully 
(plate 8), among the many positively ugly styles of 
a later, degenerate period. 

The Classic Roman Capitals have been preserved 



Plate XXI 
Modern Script 



I 




.ad-ycyyt^^/^ 



<AyJy^ 



^^^^y'T^^a/;^. 




to us upon the ruins of ancient buildings, such as the 
columns and arches in the Forum Romanum in 
Rome, and on numerous tomb inscriptions. Capital 
letters only were used by the Romans, the small 
or lower case letters being devised at a much later 
period. The marvelously beautiful and graceful 
lines of Greek and Roman architecture are con- 
stantly studied and copied by our modern architects 
and builders, and it is but natural that the ancient 
letter forms also have been revived and are univer- 
sally employed to-day for architectural inscriptions, 
memorial tablets, &c. 

Like many beautiful things, however, the Roman 
letters of the Classical period present deficiencies, 
the principal one being the absence of several letters 
contained in our modern alphabets. Although 
ideal in form and outline, the primitive Roman capi- 
tals, however appropriate in their day, are lacking in 
harmony of proportion, and at our advanced age we 
must aim at greater perfection. With the world's 
art specimens before us to study from, we should re- 
fuse to accept the crude methods of an ancient time. 
Since the days of the Italian Renaissance therefore. 
Classic letters have been greatly modified and are 
still being improved, for ours is an age of constant 
progress and improvement. 

We cannot claim originality in the production of 
letter shapes. The letterer of to-day copies from 
forms which have been in existence for centuries; he 
but continues to enlarge their artistic possibilities. 
He takes the letters as handed down, and works out 
the shapes according to the progressive ideas of an 
advanced era. It is cultivation and education that 



88 



has taught him to see and enabled him to judge; the 
museums and galleries have furnished him with the 
art treasures of all ages and nations, in order to study 
and compare the different styles, and thus enlarge 
his horizon. He has before him endless variety of 
alphabets and letter shapes, and the product of his 
studies and skill is the refined and finished letter of 
the present time. The old masters could not boast 
of such privileges, and their work, therefore, being 
original and the product of their own inventive 
genius, should be held in so much the higher 
esteem. 

The letter forms J, U and W were unknown in an- 
cient Rome, V standing for both U and V, and the 
W having been later devised by making a double V, 
as the name implies. This letter form V being em- 
ployed also to express U is one of the objectionable 
features of this alphabet (REVVE). By reason of 
its incompleteness the Classic Roman alphabet should 
not be employed in advertisements, nor on street 
signs, name plates, etc., which demand a more legible 
style of letter. It is a pitiful spectacle to see stran- 
(COLVMBVS AVENVE) gers standing at the 
street corners of the city, vainly trying to spell out 
the names. 

A modernized form of the Classic Roman is much 
in vogue with our artists, for book-plates, newspa- 
per-headings, &c. (See plate 31.) These are very 
handsome letters, but, unfortunately, all the short- 
comings of their originals have been retained and 
even emphasized. Among these is the unwise prac- 
tice of constructing each letter of different width, 
the B so much narrower than C and D, the N 



unreasonably drawn out, and the S condensed to less 
than half of the square. 

Of the exaggerated modern styles of Roman let- 
ters perhaps the less said, the better. A few exam- 
ples of the letter U, freakishly distorted, are also 
represented on plate 31. 

Modern Roman is a type of letter evolved from 
the Roman capitals, modified and perfected, retain- 
ing the beauties of its classical originals in all es- 
sentials, with their inconsistencies and deficiencies 
corrected. It is at once the most legible and most 
generally used form of letter known. 

Modern Roman (plates 5, 6 and 7) is the alpha- 
bet we all are familiar with, being universally 
adopted, under various names, in book- and news- 
paper-printing. These are the letters we have been 
taught to read from the time of our " First Reader" 
at school, nay, even from our first ABC lesson. As 
survival of the fittest, this alphabet has endured since 
the Mediaeval Age, and to-day, improved, idealized, 
it has victoriously conquered all other styles of let- 
ters. By virtue of its greater legibility the Modern 
Roman letter is gaining favor even with so conserv- 
ative a people as the Germans. The German Text, 
a modified Gothic letter, has held sway through cen- 
turies, but German technical books and scientific 
magazines and newspapers are now printed entirely 
in Roman types. 

This style of lettering can be fittingly employed 
on all occasions where space permits of its use with- 
out crowding, for advertisements, inscriptions, signs, 
in short, Modern Roman is never out of place. 

Its use in wider fields should be encouraged 



89 



and cannot fail to win new friends wherever em- 
ployed. 

Almost all the modern alphabets are embodied in 
the structure of the Modern Roman. The Antique, 
French, Plain, Block and nearly all other styles of 
letters are essentially Roman. The student who has 
learned to design good Modern Roman letters, has 
practically also mastered the construction of those 
other alphabets, barring a few details. 

See " Mechanical construction of letters and num- 
erals," page 31, and also "Practice work," page 19. 

The French Roman (plates 9 and 10) may be 
classified as a happy combination of the Classic, An- 
tique and Modern Roman alphabets. This style of 
letter, used in the Latin countries since the Middle 
Ages, has been much improved, until it presents to- 
day a refined type, with the classical lines of beauty 
enhanced. Its legibility is but second to that of the 
Modern Roman. This text is not frequently seen in 
our country, and its elegance of form still holds a 
strange note. 

You will find in many books styles of alphabets 
termed " French Roman," that show but little re- 
semblance to it. No letters of any alphabet, old or 
new, can compare with this beautiful type. Its 
ideal, graceful lines proclaim the French Roman the 
aristocrat of letters. 

The use of this style of lettering for architectural 
inscriptions, memorials, street signs and other pub- 
lic purposes, in place of the Classic Roman, should 
be encouraged. 

Crowding spoils the effect of the French Roman 
letter. Painstaking accuracy is necessary to bring 



Plate XXII 
German Gothic 






out the sharp pointed serifs, the clean-cut lines and 
graceful curves of this letter. 

Wherever employed, the French Roman letters 
will not look their best when other styles are intro- 
duced within their sacred precincts. 

For rules of construction see under " General rules 
for the construction of letters," page 50. 

Antique Roman, (plate 1 1 ) , as the name implies, is 
an older type of letter than our Modern Roman, 
and, in a modified form, has come into vogue again 
of late years. It may be said that the Antique 
Roman letters were derived from the Classic Roman 
capitals, since the time of the invention of the art of 
printing. The old style of Roman, from which our 
Modern Roman has evolved, is a later product. 

If the French Roman be better known to the 
Latin races, Antique Roman is certainly more famil- 
iar to us. This alphabet has been much employed 
during the past centuries, in book- and newspaper 
printing by the English-speaking nations. Its let- 
ters differ but slightly from the Modern Roman of 
our day, many traces of its classical origin still ad- 
hering. 

The hair lines of the Antique Roman letters are 
finer than those of the Modern Roman, lending a 
note of refinement to this type. The serifs also are 
decidedly flatter and sometimes slanting, as are the 
brackets, and in these characteristics they resemble 
the French Roman. The body lines of A, K, M, N, 
R, V, W and Y are extended, and the cross lines of 
A and H may be broken. These peculiarities add a 
quaint charm to the letters of this alphabet, which 
does not impair their legibility. 



Engravers and lithographers employ this style for 
inscriptions on tablets, in art- and commercial work. 
Some of the finest lettering in Antique Roman may 
be seen on our bank notes, stock certificates, insur- 
ance policies, &c. In the business districts of our 
great cities this handsome letter is used by sign 
writers of renown, and many are the admirable 
specimens of their art, lettered in gold, on public 
and private buildings, and proclaiming to the world 
the superiority of the American letterer. For per- 
fection of style, beauty of form and excellence of 
spacing these business signs would be fitting objects 
of study. 

The letters of the Antique Roman alphabet are 
also well adapted for newspaper- and magazine 
headings, book titles and -cover designs, as well as 
for letter heads and business cards, and wherever 
the Modern Roman is appropriate. 

With the exception of a few details, the construc- 
tion of the Antique Roman letters is based on the 
same principles as that of the Modern Roman, as de- 
scribed under " Mechanical construction of letters 
and numerals," page 31. 

See also "Antique Roman," page 51. 

Ornamental Roman, (plate 12) sometimes called 
"Tuscan Roman," also "Etruscan," is a Roman let- 
ter with curved serifs. It is a showy letter and can 
be used for effect. One line of lettering in this style 
among smaller letters in Plain or Italics will have a 
very expressive appearance. In advertisements it is 
appropriate for the confectionery, millinery and 
similar lines of business. 

For engrossed documents the Ornamental Roman 



92 



letters are well adapted and can be used in conjunc- 
tion with the Modern Roman or Plain letters. 

On title pages, book covers and newspaper head- 
ings these dressy letters are employed to good ad- 
vantage. 

Sign writers occasionally use the "Ornamental 
Roman" letter, wagon letterers employ it when- 
ever a "fancy" letter is wanted. 

Engravers and lithographers also select this style 
to emphasize a certain line of an inscription. 

For construction rules see " Ornamental Roman," 

page 54- 

Roman Italics (plate 14) are the well-known 
slanting style of Roman letters used in p rinted books, 
newspapers, &c., to emphasize a word or in quota- 
tion of a sentence. It seems that these letters have 
been developed from an early Italian style of script. 
Lettering, composed of the expressive types of this 
alphabet, is extremely easy to read, as it is the near- 
est approach of printed or drawn letters to our writ- 
ten characters, which is evidenced by the similarity 
of the up- and down-strokes and the slanting position 
of the letters, but with the legibility enhanced by a 
more uniform appearance. 

The Roman Italics are used on all occasions where 
a larger group of lettering is to be introduced into 
another mass, as in the reproduction of a part of a 
speech, a verse of poetry or any quotation. But the 
letters can also be employed for artistic display on 
title pages of books, for newspaper headings, etc. 
For such a purpose the letters are treated with more 
freedom, and the ends of hair lines of A, B, D, &c., 
and the tails of Q, R, &c., extended with a genial 



swing, and sometimes connected in graceful curves 
with other letters, producing unique and most pleas- 
ing effects. 

For speed and economy of space the capitals in 
connection with the lower case Italics are employed 
by sign painters for all-round lettering and by en- 
gravers for inscriptions on metal. The architect also 
uses this style with the single pen stroke, as in writ- 
ing, to mark his plans and specifications. 

Contrary to the appearance of other styles of 
Roman letters, the lower case Italics (plate 25) look 
best when set closely and executed rapidly in a free, 
running hand, for, the graceful flowing curves and 
the even slant are made possible only by determined 
and skilful handling. 

Rules for construction will be found under " Gen- 
eral rules for the construction of letters," page 50. 

The Plain or Condensed, Round and Square, 
(plates 15 and 16) also called " Egyptian," " Gothic," 
" Sans serif," etc., have been designed for conveni- 
ence and economy. These letters can be condensed 
to fit into the narrowest spaces, are at once plain to 
read and quickly and easily made, and do not at all 
look commonplace when correctly constructed. 
There are no serifs, no ornaments; the letters stand 
unadorned, in their nudity exposing any possible de- 
fects of construction. Thus it may be said that these 
apparently easy letters are more difficult to make 
than the other ornamental styles. To get a correct 
idea of their proportions, the Plain letters must be 
carefully studied and a great deal of practice is 
necessary to bring out their proper shapes. For, al- 



93 



Plate XX in 
Modern Gothic (Old English), Type 

(American Type Founders Co.) 

Modern Gothic (Old English), Drawing 





^3(^2|&akkfg{{ijfelmn0p 






^m€B€W 







fmap^ 





though they can be produced easily enough, when 
speed is the only object, these letters can also be made 
to look very handsome, if constructed accurately 
and with care. The conscientious student, who 
devotes time and effort in developing the quiet beauty 
and unpretentious charm of the Plain letters, will 
find himself eventually highly rewarded. There is 
much elegance hidden in these simple letter forms, 
awaiting the earnest endeavor of him who will exer- 
cise patience and skill to bring it out 

One thing above all should be borne in mind. The 
correct rendering of the Modern Roman letters on 
one hand, and of the Plain letters on the other, once 
fully undestood and mastered, all other styles of let- 
ters of the entire Roman family have been con- 
quered. The construction of all but the Gothic and 
Uncial letters is embodied in the rules for the " Me- 
chanical construction of letters and numerals," 
(page 31) and the Plain letters are Roman in a con- 
densed form. 

The Plain letters are generally used by engravers 
and lithographers. For advertisements they are suit- 
able wherever there is not room enough, for the other 
Roman styles. Sign writers employ these letters 
constantly, and for lettering on wagons the round 
and square Plain letters are most generally adapted. 

For architects' use the Plain letters are embodied 
in the Single Stroke alphabets, plate 20. (See also, 
page 112.) 

For construction see "Plain" letters, page 55. 

Plain, Spurred. (Plate 17.) The Spurred let- 
ters are adapted especially for carving on wood and 
stone. They will look equally well if employed for 



96 



other purposes, being very handsome and legible, and 
not requiring as much space as the French-, Mod- 
ern- or Antique Roman letters. 

They are much used in sign painting and by lithog- 
raphers and engravers. In architectural inscrip- 
tions also the Spurred letters are most appropriate 
and do not look out of place with either the Greek, 
Roman or the modern styles of architecture. 

Work of great beauty can be accomplished by the 
use of this letter, which is a near relative of the 
French Roman, All that has been said of the Plain 
letters, except as to space, may be applied to the 
Spurred style, as it represents in fact nothing but the 
Plain letters with spur serifs. 

For construction principles see "Spurred" let- 
ters, page 55. 

Block, (plate 18) called also Full Block, repre- 
sents the heaviest type of all modern Roman letters. 
They may be classified as Plain letters with block 
serifs, or rather as Roman letters without hair lines. 

The Block letters are employed mainly by sign 
painters, for large work, and this style of lettering 
can be read at the greatest distance. 

For business cards, letter heads, and in business 
announcements the Block letters are also appro- 
priate, if but one line of this style be selected with 
other types of letters. For instance, in the first line, 
firm name, in Script; second line, business or trade, 
in Block; third line, address, in smaller Plain or 
Italics. 

The square type of Block letters is principally 
used in wagon lettering. 

For construction see "Block" letters, page 54. 



Ornamental Block, (plate 19) also called "Tus- 
can Block," are Block letters with curved serifs, as 
in Ornamental Roman. They are employed like the 
Block letters, and a line of Ornamental Block helps 
to break the monotony of an inscription of plainer 
letters. These heavy Ornamental types are very 
showy, and their construction does not require the 
skill necessary for a Plain letter, because the orna- 
mental serifs tend to hide slight defects in the 
structure of the letter. 

The Architects' Single Stroke type of Ornamental 
Block, (plate 20) is a dressy letter, to be used for 
display of any single line of an inscription on plans 
&c., easily made and plain to read. 

Principles of construction are given under 
" Block " letters, page 54. 

The Lower Case Letters. (Plates 25 to 29), Our 
small or lower case letters were derived from the 
Minuscule- (as distinguished from Majuscule- or 
capital-) letters, originated in the VII century. 
Words in lower case letters are more easily read than 
those set in capitals only. This is due to our familiar- 
ity with this style of letter, it being employed uni- 
versally in printed books, journals and newspapers. 
A large mass of reading matter should always be 
designed in lower case letters, to make it appeal to 
the public. 

The lines of the small letters, like those of the 
capitals, should not be judged by the cramped and 
stiff appearance of printed types. In the hand of 
an artist the lower case letter assumes a most beau- 
tiful shape and form, when constructed with free- 
dom of treatment and harmony of spacing. 



Roman capitals only should be used with the 
lower case Roman letters, Block capitals with 
lower case Block, and so on. It is not permissible 
to combine two different styles of letters within the 
same word. 

There is but one exception to this rule: the lower 
case Gothic letters may be used with both the 
Uncial and the Gothic capitals. In the lower case 
German Gothic (plate 29) the author has designed 
a new type for combination with both, the German 
Gothic capitals and the Modern Uncial Initials. A 
practical application of combining these two styles 
of letters is shown in the example of a resolution, 
plate 35. 

No lower case letters are devised for the Classic 
Roman; these letters are therefore used as capitals 
only. 

For construction of lower case letters see page 74. 

THE GOTHIC ALPHABETS 

Modern Gothic, also called Old English. (Plate 
23). Gothic is a term applied to Mediaeval art in 
Europe, especially to the different Pointed types of 
architecture, prevalent from the XII to the XVI 
century; a style developed from the Romanesque, 
and having probably no relation to the Goths. 

The Old Gothic letters were derived from the 
Greek Uncials of the III century, but several of 
the letter forms originated in the Gothic Runes. The 
Gothic Runic system of letters was lost with the 
Gothic language. 

The Old Gothic characters have descended to us 



97 



Plate XXIV 
Modern Uncials (Church Text) 



from ancient manuscripts, and, as perfected and 
modernized, have been developed out of the Gothic 
or Old English, also called Blackletter, and used 
by the English printers of the XVI century. 

The letters represent a family by themselves, but 
since the revival of the Roman letters, the Gothic 
letter forms have been greatly changed, and the in- 
fluence of the Roman lines upon them is clearly 
seen. 

Gothic letters now are not generally used in Latin 
countries. They have flourished, however, for the 
last centuries in Germany, where the Gothic and the 
German Text, a modified form of the Gothic, are 
almost exclusively used. But the Roman letter is, 
of late, making inroads into eastern lands, and the 
Gothic is being revived in the west. As the tide of 
Gothic conquest in the III and IV centuries 
flowed from east to west, so the stately and elegant 
Gothic letter forms have recently found their way 
westward, into the United States, and are now used 
for special announcements, on stationery, etc., while 
the Roman letters, in turn, are slowly winning favor 
in literary circles of Germany, and are there 
employed in the printing of scientific and art 
journals. 

The use of the Modern Gothic letters for an- 
nouncements of social functions, inscriptions on 
panels in churches and halls has become very popu- 
lar. Its promiscuous employment in newspaper ad- 
vertisements, however, is a mistake, as the majority 
of readers are not sufficiently familiar with this type 
at present. The prevailing custom of using the 
Modern Gothic letters for names on private- and 



business cards is also to be censured. Names and 
addresses should always be set in the plainest, most 
legible letters and figures. 

The great field for the undisputed reign of the 
Modern Gothic letter lies in the artistic engrossing 
of testimonials and other commemorative docu- 
ments. The unlimited possibilities for decorative 
effect, offered by these embellished letter forms, as 
well as their adaptability to lend themselves to elab- 
orate ornamentation and illumination, make them 
especially suitable for this purpose. 

The Modern Gothic capitals are used for initials 
only. A name or word, composed of Gothic capi- 
tals, would be difficult to read, even for a letterer. 

As with the Roman letters, a corruption of taste 
has brought forth extremes of ugliness in extrava- 
gant curlicues and grotesque shapes, and examples 
of this kind have found their way into books of in- 
struction in lettering. The other extreme is also 
represented by clumsy, ungraceful imitations of 
these beautiful letters. 

In selecting a book of instruction or of alphabets, 
for the purpose of study, the aid of a competent 
teacher or judge should be sought. 

For construction of Modern Gothic letters see 
page 62. 

For lower case Gothic letters see page 81. 

German Gothic. Of the many different modern 
styles of German Gothic letters, the initials shown 
on plate 22 represent one of the prettiest designs. 
It is a highly ornamental letter, and in this respect 
ranks with the Modern Uncials. 

The manner of execution, in fine outline, and 



100 



body lines filled in solid, enhances its decorative ap- 
pearance. This method may be employed with any 
of the other style letters, when occasion demands it. 
The Modern Gothic (plate 23) is especially 
adapted to this treatment. 

Sign painters and decorators should not use the 
German Gothic letters, except for such special work 
as church windows and inscriptions in public build- 
ings, etc. This style is also suitable for title pages, 
book cover designs, &c. 

For use on engrossed documents the German 
Gothic initials may be set within a square of ara- 
besque- or scrollwork. 

See "German Gothic" Initials, page 66. 

German Gothic Lower Case letters Mall be found 
on plate 29. 

The Modern Uncials, or Church Text. (Plate 
24). In the midst of an era of general upheaval, at 
a time, when the images of the old gods of mythol- 
ogy tumbled before the victorious onslaught of 
Christianity, when armies rallied under the banner 
of the new religion, and devastated fair landscapes, 
when wild hordes of barbarous tribes scoured the 
countries of Europe, and armored knights swooped 
down upon the walled towns, when little was held 
sacred and few were safe — in these days of ruin and 
unrest there sat in the quiet sanctuary of their cells, 
in the safe and secluded nooks of quaint cloisters, 
hidden in the valleys or inaccessible mountain fast- 
nesses, far from the roar and carnage of battle and 
plundering, the goodly friars, protected by mighty 
lords and kings, their allies, and secure from at- 



tack, in the knowledge of the power of the Gospel 
of Christ, which they endeavored to spread and 
translate into the heathen tongues. 

Here, in peace and solitude, the learned monks 
cultivated the sciences and arts, the knowledge of 
which they had brought from Italy, the center of 
civilization. In these monasteries, the abodes of 
learning, were executed beautiful specimens of the 
art of chirography, copied from the Holy Scrip- 
tures, in psalm books, litanys and missals. 

Before Gutenberg invented the art of printing, 
books were written by hand. Some of these old 
manuscripts in marvelously handsome and finished 
script, emblazoned with gilded and beautifully col- 
ored lettering, now crumbled and age-stained, are 
shown in our museums and collections, still bearing 
witness to the skill of their patient writers. 

The first letter on a page or at the beginning of a 
sentence or chapter — the initial — was generally 
drawn large, and elaborately embellished, or orna- 
mented with scrollwork and painted and illumin- 
ated in colors. The original capitals, found in the 
early missals, were later copied in type and used for 
printing, in a manner similar to the written books. 

Like the Modern Gothic characters the Modern 
Uncials are the product of gradual development. 
There are countless styles of these Mediaeval letters, 
and most of them show such strange features, as to 
greatly impair their usefulness for modern pur- 
poses. The letters presented on plate 24 are ex- 
amples, modified and designed for greater legibility. 

The Uncials are seldom used for any but decora- 
tive purposes, and in this respect they stand high 



lOI 



Plate XXV 

Lower Case Letters 1 

Modern Roman 

Roman Italics 



I 



abcdefghijkl 
mnopqrstuy 

uvw VWXZ -^^ 



Plate XXVI 

Lower Case Letters 2 

French Roman 

Antique Roman 



abcdefghijklmno 



pqrstuvwxyz^ 

123456789 



abcdefghijklmno 



pqrstuvwxyz 

123456789 



Plate XXVII 

Lower Case Letters 3 

Spurred 

Plain, Square 

Plain, Round 



abcdefghijklmnopqrsty 

uw 123456789 vxz 

abcdefghijklmnopqrsty 

uw I2345B789 vxz 

abcdefghijklmnopqrsty 

uw 123456789 vxz 



Plate XXVIII 

Lower Case Letters 4 

Block 

Ornamental Block 



abcdefghijklmno 

pqrstuvwxyz 

123456789 

abcdefghijklmno 

pqrstuvwxyz 

123456T89 



Plate XXIX 

Lower Case Letters 5 

Ornamental Roman 

German Gothic 

Modern Gothic (Old English) 



123456789 

abcdefghijklmnop 




ti 



tf 




§€ 



qrstuvwxyz 



0i^f 





£7 a 



f 
J 





F 



\y. 



mi 



um 125456789 xz 



above any of our other letter forms. They admit of 
a scope of embellishment even larger than that of 
the Gothic initials. 

As with the latter, names or words should not be 
composed entirely of these capitals. A special type 
of lower case letters, designed for use in conjunction 
with either the Modern Uncials or the German 
Gothic capitals, will be found on plate 29. 

On engrossed documents, as memorials, resolu- 
tions, etc., the Modern Uncials may be employed 
with most gratifying results. See plate 35. 

For church work, stained glass windows, inscrip- 
tions for private and public places, where an orna- 
mental letter is desired, no style of lettering, better 
qualified for this purpose, can be found. 

For construction principles see " Modern Un- 
cials," page 67. 

The Numerals. The seven letters, I, V, X, L, C, 
D and M constitute the Roman numerals. The 
numerals used at present by all civilized peoples are 
of Hindoo origin, and were developed by the Ara- 
bians in the IX century. 

The employment of Roman numerals for archi- 
tectural inscriptions and on book titles has of late 
been revived. Watch and clock dials, in turn, are 
now frequently marked with the Arabian characters, 
and they are generally used for all purposes through- 
out the world. 

For reasons of harmony, the employment of the 
proper style of numerals, as designed in combina- 
tion with a certain alphabet, is obligatory. So the 
Arabic numerals, executed in Modern Roman style 
(plate 7) should be used in conjunction with the 



Modern Roman letters, and those in the Gothic 
style (plate 29) be selected when Gothic letters are 
used. 

The other examples of numerals are found on 
plates 20, 26, 27, 28 and 29. 

The construction of the different types of numer- 
als requires no special description. They are made in 
a manner similar to the letters of their category. 
The rules laid down for the construction of numer- 
als under " Mechanical construction of letters and 
numerals," page 31, pertain also to the construction 
of the other styles. 

The Architects' Single Stroke Alphabets. (Plate 
20). It is absolutely necessary for the student of 
these alphabets to go through the course of 
" Mechanical construction of letters and numerals," 
(page 31) and also to study the article on " Arrange- 
ment and spacing of letters," (page 116) before at- 
tempting to copy any of these letters. Having ac- 
quired a certain amount of skill in drawing all the 
previous styles of letters, described in this chapter, 
renders the reproduction of the Single Stroke letters 
a comparatively easy matter. 

The principles laid down for the construction of 
the Modern Roman letters and numerals govern 
equally all styles of the Architects' Single Stroke 
alphabets, and the correct spacing and arrangement 
of letters are of even greater importance than their 
more or less perfect shaping. 

For the lettering of titles and details on plans and 
specifications, where a very plain letter is wanted, 
that can be executed with speed, and is easily made, 
the Architects' Single Stroke alphabets have been 



112 



designed. The first two alphabets represent simpli- 
fied forms of the Plain or Condensed letters, (plate 
15) the third a modification of the Ornamental 
Block, (plate 19). The construction of these types 
of letters requires even less time than that of the 
Roman Italics, as described for execution by the 
pen stroke on page 55. Like these the Single Stroke 
letters can be made slanting, but they admit of a 
greater variety of representation. If set vertically 
and executed by aid of the drawing instruments they 
will have an accurate and finished appearance. 
(Alphabet i.) Otherwise these letters are simply 
dashed off freehand, with a writing pen. 

In practising the slanted style of letter, (alpha- 
bet 2), the beginner must give attention to bringing 
the up- and down strokes exactly to the line. This 
point, and the uniform slant of all the letters are of 
the greatest importance. 

Capitals and lower case letters of the Single 
Stroke styles, vertical and slanting, used in conjunc- 
tion with the ornamental alphabet 3, offer a wide 



field of variations of letter forms, to be employed 
on titles of plans, &c. With the ornamental serifs 
added, the Architects' Single Stroke alphabet 3, rep- 
resents a decidedly decorative letter, requiring but 
a minimum of labor. 

In designing these letter forms, the extremes of 
superfluous scrolls, ends and dashes have been care- 
fully avoided, legibility being the main object. 

When constructing the Single Stroke letters, 
draw top- and bottom guide lines first, and, if lower 
case letters be used, draw middle- and sub-guide 
lines also. Sketch in the letters lightly, spacing them 
well, before beginning with ink. Use a writing pen. 
Take little ink at a time. Run in your letters after 
the method of constructing the Roman Italics, for 
which see page 55. Produce clean and even lines. 
Remove pencil marks, when finished. 

Another alphabet for architects' use is the Roman 
Italic, (plate 14) and its construction is described 
under this heading on page 55. The rules fof the 
lower case Italics, (plate 25) are found on page 75. 



113 



Plate XXX 
Example of Composition 



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THE 

DISTINCTIVE INDIVIDUALITY 
OF TONE AND CHARACTER^ 

OF THE BEAUTIFUL 

FURNITURE 

SHOWN AT OUR^WAI^RPOMS 
SIMPLY BI^ATHES A 

CHARJVl OF I^INEMENT 



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PART IV— THE PROPER AND ARTISTIC EMPLOYMENT 

OF LETTERING 

Arrangement of Letters — Composition — Spacing — Balance — Harmony 

There can be but one way of settling the question 
of spacing, after all the examples of ancient and 
modern schools have been studied, and that is, to 
space our lettering with a view to obtaining an 
effect most pleasing to the eye. This principle of 
sane use is not new by any means. It has been em- 
bodied in the designing of our modern printers' dis- 
play types, as far as practicable, with the best pos- 
sible results. We must get away from the crude 
methods of a gray past. But we should not allow 
ourselves to be carried away by the hyper-modern 
idea. 

When arranging a mass of letters, after sketching 
in the words of the text, you must study out the 
problem of spacing from the way the letters happen 
to be placed or grouped. Such difficult combina- 
tions as TT, or LA, or AJ may form the basis of 
the proportion of spacing for the rest of the letter- 
ing. Balance as nearly as possible the white 
spaces between the letters. That is to say the space 
between the letters in each word should be made to 
appear alike. This does not mean the space between 
extreme ends of letters, but the space as a whole. 

It is no easy task to produce good spacing, but the 
reward is great and the effect highly pleasing, when 



The arrangement of the letters in the composition 
of an advertisement or inscription is the most im- 
portant point in successfully solving the problem of 
good lettering. Spacing and arrangement are so 
far synonymous, that each expresses a meaning which 
cannot be separated from the other without griev- 
ously crippling it. The theme of spacing in letter- 
ing is an old one, and the systems invented and prac- 
tised, from ancient times to our own, are manifold 
and numerous, as are also the errors and deviations 
from a sane and logical course. Inconsistencies in 
spacing are perhaps not encountered more fre- 
quently in the lettering of today than in the archi- 
tectural inscriptions of a classical past. Nor is it at 
all beyond dispute, which is the better solution of 
the problem; the spacing of the old Romans, with 
all its discrepancies, such as the close setting of IND 
and VA, and the illogical distancing of characters 
in the word CATVLVS, or the questionable meth- 
ods of some masters of modern art, who strive to 
balance spaces by freely changing the size of certain 
letters, inventing constantly new and varying forms 
and shapes, to fit into and fill out spaces, as they are 
met, entirely losing sight of the main requirement in 
lettering, legibility. (Plate 32.) 



16 



a line of perfectly spaced lettering appears before 
your eyes. And when it appears in print this well 
spaced lettering is easily distinguished from other 
reading matter. The reason is not known to most 
observers, but any one can tell that the lettering is 
much plainer and easier to read, regardless of its 
reduction in size. 

The word " LETTERING ". is perhaps as good 
an example of spacing as any. See plate 32. 
The one difficulty here to be overcome is the large 
space between the stem strokes of the two Ts. If 
these letters be placed close to each other at the 
top, then the volume of space near the lower line 
will suggest the comparative space to be maintained 
between the other letters. The proportion of space 
between each pair of letters should be very carefully 
studied. The more or less perfect harmony of let- 
ters and spaces depends on the successful solution of 
this problem of correctly spacing the letters. The 
word LAW on plate 32 serves as an illustration 
of poor spacing. The space between A and W 
should be left sufficiently wide to balance that be- 
tween L and A. 

The method of spacing shown in the letters LAT, 
on the same plate, filling in the space with a dash, 
is also to be condemned. 

Note the wide space between the letters A and T 
in the word " Hats," illustrated on plate 32, and be- 
tween LL and LI in " Spelling," or between P and 
A in the word " Company," as compared with the 
crowded appearance of the other letters. These 
examples of bad spacing are the result of the 
printers' block type and discrepancies of this sort 



cannot be avoided in printing, because the spaces 
between types are figured from the extremes of the 
letters. 

The superiority of the letterer's art is thus shown. 
He is not restricted by stock rules, and can draw his 
letters and arrange them to suit the circumstances. 
The printer, less fortunate, has no alternative, but 
must employ his type as it comes. 

The space between two words should be about 
as wide as one square. Spaces between sentences 
should be greater; but these spaces between words 
are optional and may be increased or diminished to 
suit the contingencies of each case. See "Example of 
Composition," plate 30. Also Modern "Ad," 
plate 33. ^ 

Grouping of words and sentences. The tasteful 
grouping of a body of words, which may also be 
called the setting, is a quality entirely absent, or at 
least often wanting with many an artist of repute. Is 
it to be wondered at, then, that so many of the less 
successful ones follow the bad example? Look at 
our modern publications, book cover designs, news- 
paper headings. Many of them are spoiled in the 
laying out of their lettering, in the wilful breaking 
up of a word into syllables, or the tearing apart of 
a sentence. It is mutilation to carry the remnant 
of a word or sentence over to the next line. See ex- 
ample on plate 31. 

Not all sign writers are artists in their line, but 
some of them could give points to artists and archi- 
tects of the present day, on the arrangement and 
grouping of letters. 

The reading matter for an advertisement or in- 



117 



Plate XXXI 
Mutilation 
Modern Freak Letters 
Classic Roman, Modernized 



A 



5 T U D Y 



IN 



CONTEMPOP^- 





A FoY 



A K.T 






scription looks best when grouped towards an im- 
aginary center line, so that the body of the text ap- 
pears isolated from the border, or the lines, sepa- 
rating the column from other reading matter of the 
publication. The lettering of titles or inscriptions, 
for architects' plans and all other purposes, is ar- 
ranged on the same principles, always grouping the 
most important words toward the center. 

Arrange a sentence within a line, or two, or more 
lines. To be expressive, it must stand out independ- 
ent from the rest of the reading matter, and the next 
sentence must begin a new line. Any word or a 
group of words may be accentuated by placing it in 
a line by itself, or in the center of a line. 

A word must not be broken into syllables. The 
prevailing usage of displaying the principal words 
of a group of lettering by larger spacing or distanc- 
ing of letters, should not be copied by the designer 
of high-class lettering. Letters and spaces should 
always be in proportion to each other, and if any 
word or a group of words is to be emphasized, let 
it appear in larger letters than the rest. See ex- 
ample of good grouping, Frontispiece, Also 
plate 30. 

The "Ad." High-class advertisements, book 
plates, title pages of books, magazines and sheet 
music, newspaper headings, &c., are generally 
printed from plates, instead of type. The design, 
drawn in ink on paper or cardboard, is reproduced 
on a metal plate, by the photo-engraving process. 
The plate, mounted on a wooden block, is used for 
printing. If a large number of copies be desired, 
or should be wanted for different publications. 



duplicates are made of the plate, by electrotyplng. 
The drawings are executed on a somewhat larger 
scale than appears in print. For very small adver- 
tisements, such as single column newspaper or maga- 
zine — about two inches wide — the drawings should 
be made eight inches wide, or more. The measure- 
ment is figured from the extreme outer edge of 
the lettering or border. For larger ads like half 
or full page magazine, or newspaper headings, etc., 
the drawings may be made only one-half or one- 
third larger than the actual space for which they 
are intended. Lettering can be designed with more 
comfort and ease when worked out on a large scale. 
A correct drawing of lettering will always look 
well, no matter how great the reduction in size. 

When laying out the reading matter for an adver- 
tisement, one should aim to produce, not a striking 
effect, but a decent, pleasing appearance. The effec- 
tiveness of a good advertisement lies in its sim- 
plicity. Any embellishment is of secondary im- 
portance, not only for reasons of beauty, but because 
otherwise the eye is drawn from the principal, the 
text. 

The impression of the advertisement as a whole 
must conform to the sense expressed. It should serve 
as an illustration of the wording of the legend told. 
Roman letters should be selected for the purpose of 
advertising municipal, banking and insurance busi- 
ness notices, as well as matters relating to the arts 
and sciences. An announcement of spring millinery 
may be set in ornamental type and in graceful curves 
and broken lines, while the more severe forms of 
Gothic letters and Uncial capitals should be em- 



\ 



120 



ployed to herald such dignified affairs as church 
functions and the like. 

The advertisement, by its characteristic outward 
appearance, should convey, even before the words 
contained therein be read, a message akin to the sen- 
tence quoted. 

In making a drawing for an advertisement, the 
paper is first squared off, the center line put in, and 
three lines drawn around the working space. The 
first or outer line represents the cutting line. The 
second or middle line serves as a guide for the 
border. The third or inner line is drawn to keep the 
reading matter within its boundaries. The lettering 
is sketched in first, the border last. By the aid of 
the Center line the words and letters of the advertise- 
ment are broken up or divided into equal, or nearly 
equal parts, and lightly sketched in. The number 
of lines needed for the reading matter is calculated 
on another sheet of paper. Never break a word into 
syllables, — this practice is absolutely inexcusable. 

Crowding. It looks well to leave an ample mar- 
gin at the top and bottom, between the text and 
outer line, or border. An even space is left on each 
end of a line of lettering, and the reading matter 
kept well balanced toward the center. Plenty of 
space between the body of the lettering and the bor- 
der or frame always looks better and also makes 
the advertisement appear more conspicuous than 
larger and crowded lettering. It is a bad mistake 
generally committed by advertisers, to direct the 
artist to make the letters of a given size for a given 
space. Instead, they ought to leave the size of letters 
to the better judgment of the letterer, after pointing 

12: 



out what Is to appear most prominently. To Insure 
mutual satisfaction, let the draughtsman submit a 
rough pencil sketch, which may be changed or cor- 
rected. 

In spite of the many good examples to be ob- 
served daily, some advertisers never learn to use 
short, pithy sentences. They will crowd into a three 
of four inch single column advertisement, matter 
composed of four- or five hundred letters. When 
photographed down to the print block the lettering 
will, of course, appear very small, and, printed on 
the coarse stock of some newspapers, must come out 
partly indiscernible. One cannot reasonably ex- 
pect readers of the advertising columns to peruse 
all the small text of such an announcement. The 
sense of the subject matter should be presented in as 
few words as possible and in letters of sufficient 
size, so that it can be read at a glance. 

After the sketchwork has been finally approved 
and all the lettering and by work carefully penciled 
In, the whole may be traced and transferred to a 
fresh sheet for inking in. 

The reproduction of a good drawing is sometimes 
spoiled in the process of photo-engraving, by in- 
competent or careless workmen. The artist can 
have a proof of the plate submitted to him for ex- 
amination, and he should be asked to judge as to the 
merits of the work. See plate 33. 

The Border or Frame. Conventional adaptation 
of flower and foliage motives, as well as the lines of 
the different styles of architecture can be fittingly 
employed In borders for advertisements or inscrip- 
tions, where an ornamental expression is desired. 



Plate XXXII 
Spacing 



LAW LETTER LTAT 



LETTERING 



SPELLING 



HATS, wrkLLIIlU COMPANY. COMPANY 



Endless are the possibilities for the combinations 
of graceful lines for attractive borders. The em- 
blems of the trades and sciences, the attributes of 
the arts, intertwined with scrollwork or combined 
with designs of columns and friezes present ideal 
opportunities to demonstrate artistic ability. The 
addition to the advertisement of a suitable border 
has a wide and important bearing upon its appear- 
ance. Apart from the beauty of the effect as a har- 
monious whole, the border invariably adds a charm, 
a distinctiveness, which, when the notice appears 
among a number of others in the columns of a news- 
paper, at once attracts the eye. 

A border designed for an advertisement should in 
some manner be related to the matter advertised. 
For a tobacco " ad " the border may be composed of 
leaves and flowers of the tobacco plant, or graceful 
waving and curling lines of tobacco smoke. For 
real estate, the building-, furniture- and allied 
trades and similar lines of advertising the whole 
scale of architectural lines and forms is available. 
But do not be led astray by the folly of some artist 
who embellished a candy advertisement with a bor- 
der composed of fowls and feathers. Do not con- 
struct borders composed of a number of meaningless 
" curlicues " or " gingerbread work." Study your 
design well, and work it out with the consciousness 
of art. Flowers and foliage are never out of place, 
and may be employed for borders in all cases, as 
also a frame composed of straight or gracefully 
curved lines. 

When designing a border the first consideration 
must be to give the text or reading matter due 



prominence. A border of elaborate design should 
be drawn in light lines only. 

For other matter concerning Borders see under 
"Irregular Curves," page i8, and the following 
paragraph. 

For examples of borders see plates 30 and 33. 

Adapting ideas. It has been stated in a previous 
chapter that genius is not essential to become a good 
artist in lettering. Novel ideas are not alone pro- 
duced in the imagination of an artistic temperament. 

It is the man with an eye for practical things who 
gets up the schemes for advertisements that com' 
mand the admiration of connoisseurs, for a time at 
least. But he does not present any new ideas, nor 
does he imagine anything; he is too much of a prac- 
tical, matter-of-fact man for that. He simply 
adapts a well-known idea for his purpose. 

To put simple, every day themes to practical use 
for advertisements is not at all as difficult as it seems. 
All you have to do is to look around you with your 
eyes. open. You can get inspiration close at hand. 
No need to go far or travel abroad. 

For the purpose of illustration we will assume 
that you desire to design a border for a notice, and as 
it is to be used as an advertisement for a new fish- 
ing rod, the border should suggest something aquatic. 

Very well. In your bathroom the decorations on 
the tiles show a design of pond lilies. That will 
(do— or, rather, you will make it do. Just take a 
piece of tracing paper and copy the outlines of one 
bunch of the flowers, a few buds and some of the 
waving stems and floating leaves. You can use this 
composition without much changing, in fact, you 



124 



select which of the flowers, buds, leaves and stems 
you can best utilize for your scheme, and leave out 
what is not wanted. (See example on plate 34.) 
The center lily is too large — lay it aside, as also a 
bud and leaf below and substitute a smaller one. 
The stems are rearranged and a bud placed to fill 
the corner, and there you are, one-half of the lower 
border is complete; the other half is added by re- 
versing the pattern. For the sides you only have to 
extend the trailing stems, or shorten them, accord- 
ing to the shape of the advertising space. The 
flowers and leaves must be placed in a horizontal 
position. Outside of these minor changes it is sim- 
ply a matter of tracing. For the top take the same 
detail of design used for the bottom, with the excep- 
tion of a leaf here and a bud there, to make it ap- 
pear lighter and to balance better the effect of, the 
frame as a whole. 

In a similar manner the designs of wall papers, 
borders, patterns of rugs and carpets, embroidery, 
&c., may be utilized. 

For other examples of borders see plates 30 and 

33. 

Letter Heads, Business Cards. Designs for these 
branches of the art of lettering are also drawn on 
paper and reproduced upon metal. The lettering 
for business cards and letter heads is generally laid 
out with a view to utilizing the same design and 
plate for both. Attention must therefore be paid 
to arranging the lettering suitably for the space at 
the head of the letter sheet. This is accomplished 
by distributing the reading matter in as few straight 



or slightly curved lines as possible, rather narrow 
as to height, and long drawn out horizontally. 

Occasionally an emblem of trade, decorations of 
flowers, a vase or portrait is placed to the left of the 
design, appropriate for milliners, florists, decorators, 
etc. Borders should not be used. 

All styles of Roman letters are suitable for this 
purpose. The first line, the name of the firm, might 
be set in Script; the next line, relating to the busi- 
ness, in Modern Roman or Block, and the last line, 
giving the address, in Italics or smaller Roman or 
Plain letters. A pleasing effect results when one 
style of letter only, graded to different sizes, accord- 
ing to their importance, is used. 

The lettering on a business card or letter head 
should be sharp and well defined. The narrow strip 
of lettering appears to advantage on the former 
when placed near the lower edge, leaving the upper 
half blank. 

The possibilities of varying designs and combina- 
tions of lettering for Book Covers are unlimited. 
Here the fertile imagination of the progressive ar- 
tist has free play. 

Scroll designs of intertwined Italics, artistic, but 
very simple in appearance, and most difficult of 
composition, or any of the ornamental styles of let- 
ters may be used, without a border. Original 
schemes of lettering and borders of odd appearance, 
bold letters upon a background of curiously 
twisted, ornamental line work, curved lines of letter- 
ing, mingling with, branches or flowers, or just a 
line of gracefully flourished French Roman letters, 
freely treated, will all look well on a book cover. 



125 



Plate XXXIII 
Design for Modern "Ad" 




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Sometimes a title name, in any of the Roman style 
letters, capitals and lower case, enclosed in an oval 
or plairr oblong line border, is called for, and makes 
an elegant design. 

The Uncial, Gothic and Script letters should be 
used for titles of books on history, architecture, 
•art, &c. 

The construction of a design of lettering for a 
Title Page requires the employment of novel and 
unique ideas, and skilful work of the highest qual- 
ity. Lettering on title pages is, often framed in a 
suitable border, or flanked by architectural columns. 
Letters of any conventional style may be selected 
and treated in a free and unrestricted manner, but 
their lines should always proclaim the artist. 

Figure work and elaborate ornamentation of great 
beauty often accompanies the lettering of title 
pages, yet, in many instances, the poor quality of the 
letter forms and their faulty spacing furnish an odd 
contrast to the excellent by-work. 

For title pages, as for all purposes, the lettering 
should always be considered of first importance. 
The careful grouping and arrangement of letters, 
and their accurate execution is most essential. 

Large and conspicuous letters of artistic design and 
finish are desirable for the title's of newspapers and 
periodicals. The lettering may be elaborately 
drawn in open line work, or shaded, but the letters 
should be carefully spaced, and be of a plain style. 

There is a tendency to crowd in too much orna- 
mentation, or add heavy borders to the narrow space 
allotted to the Headings of newspapers. If a border 
be used, let it appear in light line work and do not 



let it be too clumsy. Bulkiness should also be 
guarded against in designing the lettering. When 
more than one line of it is required, arrange the 
most important matter in one line, composed of 
heavier letters, and set the remainder in smaller, 
lighter characters. 

Artistic work in newspaper titles is sometimes 
seen. The lettering appears on a design of an archi- 
tectural frieze, flanked by potted plants, or having 
urns at the ends. A narrow garland of flowers, in 
light outline, separating the headline from the other 
printed matter, produces a charming effect. 

Designing Memorials, Resolutions, &c. The 
work of designing lettering for memorials, resolu- 
tions, testimonials, diplomas and other commem- 
orative documents, also called engrossing, is in 
many instances the manifestation of great art. What 
has been said under the heading " The ad " also ap- 
plies, and with even greater force, to the laying out 
of lettering for this purpose. Avoid loud, striking 
effects. Aim for beauty and elegance. 

Unlike the advertisement, which is used and read 
by thousands, but, once read, is scarcely ever looked 
at again by the same individual, a document like a 
memorial is framed and hung upon the wall, and is 
reverenced, the pride of generations. And as " a 
thing of beauty is a joy forever," you should strive, 
then, to make your design a real work of art. Let 
the construction of your letters, their arrangement, 
the border, accuracy of each line and curve, the ap- 
pearance as a whole convey to those who see the 
work, the import of the message, even before they 
read the words. 
28 



I 



Put your whole heart and soul into your work. 

Do not force yourself into the harness if " in no 
mood " or '' out of sorts." Such unpleasant moods 
will pass. 

Gothic letters are always most appropriate for 
work of this kind. A large capital as a beginning 
for the words "Whereas" or "At a meeting" may 
be executed in Uncial, as also the capitals of the 
name of the person to be honored. But do not let 
the name or any word of the text appear in Gothic 
( r Uncial capitals entirely. It is illegible. Capitals 
only may be used when Roman letters are employed. 
In that case use none but the Roman letters through- 
out the work. Enough variety can be given by us- 
ing different sizes, lower case and capital letters. 

The letters composing the name and all capitals 
may be embellished with ornaments in color and 
gold. The employment of ornamental characters 
and also of elaborate adornment is very appropriate 
for this class of pen- and brush work, but the ar- 
rangement should be very carefully studied out be- 
fore the ink work is attempted. 

A pleasing effect is attained by leaving a wide 
margin to the left of the body of lettering and partly 
filling this space with ornamental filigree- or scroll- 



work, flowing out from the first letter or the capi- 
tals of the name. 

Attention should here be called to a gross mistake 
frequently encountered in designs for resolutions 
on such solemn subjects as the death of a respected 
citizen. The arrangement of lettering on documents 
of this character should be dignified and quiet. 
Frivolous looking letters with many flourishes that 
seem to be hopping and dancing all over the sheet 
must be avoided. 

An elaborate border is sometimes added to me- 
morials, resolutions and testimonials, but when the 
work is intended for framing, a plain line would, in 
most cases, be more suitable. 

Designs for these documents should always first 
be carefully sketched in lead pencil, then the effect 
studied, and errors corrected. After this it should 
be traced and carried over to the parchment or draw- 
ing paper for inking in. 

Much more than ordinary care must be exercised 
when working out memorials, &c., with ink, to avoid 
mistakes from overdrawn lines, and accidents such 
as ink spots and rubbing. These cannot easily be 
entirely eliminated; erasures are apt to be noticed. 

See example on plate 35. 



129 



Plate XXXIV 

Adapting Ideas 

Tile Design Reconstructed 

for Border 



Plate XXXV 

Example of Engrossed 

Resolution 








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CONCLUSION 



The conviction of having an inexhaustible wealth 
of ideas, the certainty that forms and compositions 
are slumbering in his mind, is the artist's pride. 

This feeling is not one of self-esteem merely, it is 
a kind of art consciousness. 

The architect studies out and draws his plans for 
a handsome villa, or a great public building, and, 
with his mind's eye sees the structure rise before 
him — the landscape gardener enhances the beauties 
of nature by the application of his art, and a knowl- 
edge gathered from experience. 

The letterer, if he be an artist, having ability of 
composition and arrangement, and a knowledge of 
decorative effects, brings to the fullest force of ex- 
pression the many beautiful letter forms and grace- 
ful lines, and gathers them into a harmonious whole. 
Under the inspiration of the moment and with the 
enthusiasm that is inseparable from him who loves 



his fascinating work for beauty's sake, the true ar- 
tist in this line likewise creates a thing of beauty, 
which is an expression of his inner life. 

But, unlike the architect or gardener, the artist of 
lettering needs no expensive apparatus to execute his 
ideas; he has all the necessary implements for his 
work right at his fingers' ends. 

If others do not appreciate the merits of your 
work, be not discouraged. There may be days when 
your ideals seem to be vanishing, owing to lack of 
understanding and appreciation on the part of those 
in a position to dictate. 

The sketch conceived in a happy moment and 
executed with enthusiasm will ever be your best 
work. Cherish your ideals and the love for your 
work in your inmost heart. The laws of beauty 
must eventually prevail, and sooner or later the high 
quality of your work will meet with due recognition. 



134 



Freehand Designs ot 

Initials, Monograms and Cyphers 

of various styles and ornamentation 

Also Borders and Book Cover 
Designs 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Adapting Ideas 124 

Advertisement, The 120 

Alphabets, The Roman 85 

Alphabets, The Gothic 97 

Antique Roman Letters .... 51, 92 

Architects' Single Stroke Alphabets, The 112 

Arrangement of Letters 116 

Balance (of spaces) 116 

Blackletter (Old English) .... 100 

Block Letters 54, 96 

Block Letters, Ornamental ... 54, 97 

Board, The Drawing 9 

Border, The 121 

Book Cover Designs 125 

Bow Spacers 13 

Bristol Board 16 

Brushes 18 

Business Cards, Designs for .... 125 

Centering 120 

Center Line 117, 121 

Classic Roman Capitals, The ... 85 
Classic Roman, Modernized .... 88 

Cleaning the Drawing IS, 22 

Cloth, Tracing 18 

Commemorative Documents, Designs for 128 



PAGE 

Compasses 11 

Compass-lead 11 

Composition (of Lettering) .... 116 

Conclusion 134 

Construction of Letters, General Rules 

for the 50 

Construction of Letters and Numerals, 

Mechanical 31 

Contents, Table of 5 

Cross-Section Paper 17 

Crowding 121 

Curves, Irregular ....... 18 

Designing Advertisements .... 120 

Designing Memorials, etc 128 

Designing Borders 121, 124 

Display (of Lettering) .... 116, 117 

Dividers, The 14 

Documents, Commemorative, Designs for 128 

Drawing Board, The 9 

Drawing Instruments, How to Use the 9 

Drawing Instruments, Set of ... 10 

Drawing Paper ....... 16 

Ellipses 30 

Eraser, Ink 19 

Erasing and Cleaning Rubber ... 15 



PAGE 

French Roman Letters .... 54, 89 

Freak Letters, Modern 89 

Freedom of Treatment 84 

Gelatine, Sheet ........ 19 

General Rules for the Construction of 

Letters 50 

Gothic, Modern . 62, 97 

Gothic, German 66, 100 

Grouping of Words and Sentences . 117 
Guide Lines, The 22 

Harmony 116 

How to Use the Instruments .... 9 

Ideas, Adapting 124 

India Ink 16 

Introduction 7 

Instruments, How to Use the ... p 

Instruments, Drawing, The Set of . . 10 

Irregular Curves 18 

Italics, Roman 55, 93 

Lead, Compass 11 

Lead Pencils 14 

Letter Heads, Designing 125 

Letters, Arrangement of 116 



PAGE 

Letters, General Rules for the Construc- 
tion of 50 

Letters and Numerals, Mechanical Con- 
struction of 31 

List of Plates 6 

Lower Case Letters, The ... 74, 97 

Margin 121, 129 

Mechanical Construction of Letters and 

Numerals 31 

Memorials, etc., Designing .... 128 
Modern Gothic Letters . ... 62, 97 
Modern Roman Letters ... 31, 50, 89 

Modern Script 84 

Modern Uncials, or Church Text . 6^, loi 
Modernized Classic Letters .... 88 

Modern Type 116 

Mounting Paper 16 

Mutilation 117 

Newspaper Headings ...... 128 

Numerals, The 112 

Numerals, Mechanical Construction of 

Letters and 31 

Old English (Gothic) Letters . . 62, 97 
Ornamental Block Letters ... 54, 96 
Ornamental Roman Letters ... 54, 92 



PAGE 

Paper, Cross-Section 17 

Paper, Drawing 16, 17 

Paper Sketching 16 

Paper, Tracing 18 

Paper, Transfer 18 

Pen, Ruling 12 

Pens, Writing 15 

Pencil Pointer 15 

Pencils, Lead 14 

Plain or Condensed Letters ... 55, 93 

Plates, List of 5 

Practice Work 19 

Position as to Light 19 

Resolutions, etc., Designing .... 128 

Roman Alphabets, The 85 

Roman Letters, Antique .... 51, 92 

Roman Letters, Classic 85 

Roman Letters, French .... 54, 89 
Roman Letters, Modern ... 31, 50, 89 
Roman Letters, Ornamental ... 54, 92 

Roman Italics 55, 93 

Rubber, Erasing and Cleaning ... 15 
Rules, General, for the Construction of 

Letters 50 

Ruling Pen, The 12 



PAGE 

Script, Modern 84 

Set of Brushes 18 

Set of Drawing Instruments, The . . 10 

Set of Irregvilar Curves 18 

Sheet Gelatine 19 

Sketching Paper ........ 16 

Space Margin . ...•-... 121, 129 

Spacers, Bow 13 

Spacing ng 

Spurred Letters, Plain . ; . . 55, 96 
Stretching the Paper 16 

Testimonials, etc.. Designing .... 128 

Thumb Tacks 15 

Title Pages 128 

Tracing Paper 18 

Transfer Paper 18 

Treatment, Freedom of 84 

Triangle, The 10 

T-Square, The g 

Type, Modern 116 

Uncials, Modern 67, 101 

Water Color, White 19 

Words, Grouping of 117 



136 



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